From stem cells to red blood cells: how far away from the clinical application?

The generation of red blood cells (RBCs) from stem cells provides a solution for deficiencies in blood transfusion. Currently, primary hematopoietic stem cells, embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells have shown the potential to produce fully mature RBCs. Here, we discuss the advantages, induction protocols, progress and possible clinical applications of stem cells in RBC production.