Cell-based intelligent micro/nanorobots for precise regulation and active biotherapy

Precision medicine has shown great promise in the field of individual biomedicine and its clinical application. However, accurate and efficient treatment remains challenging due to complex biological barriers and microenvironmental resistance in vivo. As bioinspired hybrid organisms, cell-based micro/nanorobots integrated by living cells with functional materials have attracted extensive attention and research interest. Here, we systematically review recent advances in the directional assembly of cell-based micro/nanorobots with various biological, chemical, or physical actuators. After presenting the basic modules of cellular and synthetic materials, the actuation techniques and locomotion modalities of cell micro/nanorobots are clarified and summarized. We then focus on their recent progress in biomedical field, mainly including barrier penetration, functional regulation, and active treatments of disease. Finally, the challenges and prospects for the future development of cell-based micro/nanorobots are presented, outlining that these micro/nanorobots will become increasingly powerful tools for intelligent cell therapies, especially CAR-T cells and TCR-T cells, in clinical practice.