Pollinator-mediated selection on Krameria oil flowers: A flower-pollinator fit adaptation to an atypical oil-collecting behaviour?

Abstract Background and Aims Spatial variation in plant–pollinator interactions is a key driver of floral trait diversification. A so far overlooked qualitative aspect of this variation is the behavioural component on flowers that relates to the pollinator fit. We tested the hypothesis that variation in pollinator behaviour influences the geographical pattern of phenotypic selection across the distribution range of the oil-producing Krameria grandiflora (Krameriaceae). This variation mainly involves the presence or absence of flag petal grasping, which is only performed by representatives of Centris (Centridini, Apidae), an oil-collecting bee group highly associated with Krameriaceae pollination. Methods We quantified variation in floral traits and fitness and estimated pollinator-mediated selection in five populations at a large geographical scale comprising the entire species range. In each population, we sampled individual pollen arrival and germination as a fitness measure, indicating pollination success and pollination performance, which was then relativized and regressed on standardized flower–pollinator fit (flag–stigma distance), advertisement (sepal length) and reward (oil volume) traits. This generated mean-scaled selection gradients used to calculate geographical selection dispersion. Key Results Unexpectedly, stronger selection was detected on the flower–pollinator fit trait in populations highly associated with the absence of flag petal grasping. Geographical variation in selection was mainly attributed to differential selection on the flag–stigma distance generating a selection mosaic. This may involve influences of a spatial variation in pollinator behaviour as well as composition and morphology. Conclusions Our results show the adaptive significance of the specialized flag petals of Krameria in the absence of the grasping behaviour and highlight the contribution of geographical variation in pollinator behaviour on flowers in driving selection mosaics, with implications for floral evolution, adaptation to pollinator fit and phenotypic diversity in specialized systems.