Multi-scale defects in powder-based additively manufactured metals and alloys

Defect formation is a critical challenge for powder-based metal additive manufacturing (AM). Current understanding on the three important issues including formation mechanism, influence and control method of metal AM defects should be updated. In this review paper, multi-scale defects in AMed metals and alloys are identified and for the first time classified into three categories, including geometry related, surface integrity related and microstructural defects. In particular, the microstructural defects are further divided into internal cracks and pores, textured columnar grains, compositional defects and dislocation cells. The root causes of the multi-scale defects are discussed. The key factors that affect the defect formation are identified and analyzed. The detection methods and modeling of the multi-scale defects are briefly introduced. The effects of the multi-scale defects on the mechanical properties especially for tensile properties and fatigue performance of AMed metallic components are reviewed. Various control and mitigation methods for the corresponding defects, include process parameter control, post processing, alloy design and hybrid AM techniques, are summarized and discussed. From research aspect, current research gaps and future prospects from three important aspects of the multi-scale AM defects are identified and delineated.