Recent electrochemical sensors and biosensors for toxic agents based on screen-printed electrodes equipped with nanomaterials

Fast and accurate detection of toxic substances can effectively increase the quality of human life, life expectancy, and environmental protection. So far, many electrochemical (bio)sensors have been designed to provide optimal (simplicity, low cost, high selectivity, and high sensitivity) detection of toxic substances. Here, the latest (2021 and 2022) electrochemical (bio) sensors involving nanomaterials-based SPEs for detecting toxic species are categorized and reviewed. The main application of nanomaterials was found as an increasing diagnostic sensitivity agent. Toxic substances were investigated and categorized into several groups: toxins, toxic inorganic species, pesticides and other organic residues, and drugs. Evidently, toxicity depends on the dose of each substance, and unwanted doses, even for drugs. The specific features of diagnostic platforms, the application of various nanomaterials, and diagnostic strategies were included. Moreover, the crucial specifications of all electrochemical (bio)sensors that have recently been developed to detect toxic substances have been presented in several tables considering the type of analyte.