Evaluation of ettringite and hydrocalumite formation for heavy metal immobilization: Literature review and experimental study

The immobilization of heavy metal oxyanions like chromate, arsenate and selenate, has proven to be a challenging task as they are highly mobile in alkaline environments involving S/S of contaminated media. Ettringite, a pozzolanic phase that forms in cementitious materials, has been proposed as a viable immobilization mechanism for oxyanions, wherein the oxyanion may substitute for sulfate in the ettringite structure. A literature review on the immobilization potential of ettringite showed that the substitution potential exists from the thermodynamic point of view where the formation of substituted ettringites occurs under strictly controlled conditions. The pH control over a narrow range is essential for ettringite stability; it becomes even narrower for substituted ettringites, as competing effects with sulfate ettringite and monophases are significantly affected by pH. The presence of sulfate has a catalytic effect on oxyanion incorporation in ettringite. Rapid leaching may occur when the treated media is exposed to sulfate influx. Conversely, monophases seem to be more suitable than ettringite for oxyanion immobilization, mainly as they control oxyanion solubility to lower levels than ettringite. A shift to the thermodynamic equilibrium caused by a shift in environmental conditions may result in monophase conversion to ettringite, which may lead to catastrophic expansion, as widely demonstrated in the cement and soils literature. Overall, the sensitivity of phase equilibria in cement-like systems involving oxyanions is significant with regard to multiple parameters and it is uncertain to what extent these can be predicted and/or controlled in the field.