The potential therapeutic impacts of trehalose on cardiovascular diseases as the environmental-influenced disorders: An overview of contemporary findings

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) as environmental-influenced disorders, are a major concern and the leading cause of death worldwide. A range of therapeutic approaches has been proposed, including conventional and novel methods. Natural compounds offer a promising alternative for CVD treatment due to their ability to regulate molecular pathways with minimal adverse effects. Trehalose is natural compound and disaccharide with unique biological functions and cardio-protective properties. The cardio-protective effects of trehalose are generated through its ability to induce autophagy, which is mediated by the transcription factors TFEB and FOXO1. The stimulation of TFEB plays a significant role in regulating autophagy genes and autophagosome formation. Activation of FOXO1 through dephosphorylation of Foxo1 and blocking of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) also triggers autophagy dramatically. Trehalose has been shown to reduce CVD risk factors, including atherosclerosis, cardiac remodeling after a heart attack, cardiac dysfunction, high blood pressure, and stroke. It also reduces structural abnormalities of mitochondria, cytokine production, vascular inflammation, cardiomyocyte apoptosis, and pyroptosis. This review provides a molecular overview of trehalose's cardioprotective functions, including its mechanisms of autophagy and its potential to improve CVD symptoms based on clinical evidence.