A Virtuous Cycle of Phytoremediation, Pyrolysis, and Biochar Applications toward Safe PFAS Levels in Soil, Feed, and Food

InfoMetricsFiguresRef. Journal of Agricultural and Food ChemistryASAPArticle This publication is Open Access under the license indicated. Learn More CiteCitationCitation and abstractCitation and referencesMore citation options ShareShare onFacebookX (Twitter)WeChatLinkedInRedditEmailJump toExpandCollapse ViewpointJanuary 29, 2025A Virtuous Cycle of Phytoremediation, Pyrolysis, and Biochar Applications toward Safe PFAS Levels in Soil, Feed, and FoodClick to copy article linkArticle link copied!Gerard Cornelissen*Gerard CornelissenNorwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, NorwayNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås 1432, Norway*[email protected]More by Gerard Cornelissenhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2033-9514Nathalie BrielsNathalie BrielsARCHE Consulting, Ghent 9032, BelgiumMore by Nathalie Brielshttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-1310-3004Thomas D. BucheliThomas D. BucheliEnvironmental Analytics, Agroscope, Zürich 8046, SwitzerlandMore by Thomas D. Buchelihttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-9971-3104Nicolas EstoppeyNicolas EstoppeyNorwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, NorwayMore by Nicolas EstoppeyAndrea GredeljAndrea GredeljNorwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, NorwayMore by Andrea Gredeljhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-7766-871XNikolas HagemannNikolas HagemannEnvironmental Analytics, Agroscope, Zürich 8046, SwitzerlandIthaka Institute, Goldbach 63773, GermanyMore by Nikolas HagemannSylvain LerchSylvain LerchRuminant Nutrition and Emissions, Agroscope, Posieux 1725, SwitzerlandMore by Sylvain Lerchhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-0957-8012Simon LotzSimon LotzIthaka Institute, Arbaz 1974, SwitzerlandMore by Simon LotzDaniel RasseDaniel RasseNorwegian Institute for Bioeconomy (NIBIO), Ås 1432, NorwayMore by Daniel Rassehttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-5977-3863Hans-Peter SchmidtHans-Peter SchmidtIthaka Institute, Arbaz 1974, SwitzerlandMore by Hans-Peter Schmidthttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-8275-7506Erlend SørmoErlend SørmoNorwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, NorwayNorwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås 1432, NorwayMore by Erlend Sørmohttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-3345-8777Hans Peter H. ArpHans Peter H. ArpNorwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, NorwayNorwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, NorwayMore by Hans Peter H. Arphttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-0747-8838Open PDFJournal of Agricultural and Food ChemistryCite this: J. Agric. Food Chem. 2025, XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXXClick to copy citationCitation copied!https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c00651https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c00651Published January 29, 2025 Publication History Received 14 January 2025Published online 29 January 2025article-commentary© 2025 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under CC-BY 4.0 . License Summary*You are free to share (copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt (remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below:Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license.Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator.View full license*DisclaimerThis summary highlights only some of the key features and terms of the actual license. It is not a license and has no legal value. Carefully review the actual license before using these materials. This publication is licensed underCC-BY 4.0 . License Summary*You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below: Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license. 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License Summary*You are free to share(copy and redistribute) this article in any medium or format and to adapt(remix, transform, and build upon) the material for any purpose, even commercially within the parameters below: Creative Commons (CC): This is a Creative Commons license. Attribution (BY): Credit must be given to the creator. View full license *DisclaimerThis summary highlights only some of the key features and terms of the actual license. It is not a license and has no legal value. Carefully review the actual license before using these materials. ACS Publications© 2025 The Authors. Published by American Chemical SocietySubjectswhat are subjectsArticle subjects are automatically applied from the ACS Subject Taxonomy and describe the scientific concepts and themes of the article.BeveragesBiomassCropsPyrolysisSoilsPFAS in AgricultureClick to copy section linkSection link copied!Farmlands can be contaminated with per- and polyfluorinated alkylated substances (PFAS) from increased levels in biosolids, compost, digestate, and animal manure. Such contamination can lead to high and persistent PFAS levels in (ground)water, crops, milk, and meat, (1) increasing human dietary exposure.Phytoremediation, Pyrolysis, and Biochar AmendmentClick to copy section linkSection link copied!Remediation of PFAS-impacted agricultural soil is challenging because of the diffuse character of the pollution. (2) Destructive approaches (soil washing, excavation, incineration, and chemical oxidation) will impair soil ecosystem services and cause carbon emissions. (2) In situ methods such as phytoremediation (3) and sorbent amendment with carbonaceous and/or ion-exchanging materials (4) are less intrusive and more cost-effective. (2,3) Phytoremediation of PFAS has been demonstrated to be a cost-effective, environmentally friendly, energy efficient, and aesthetically pleasing option. (3) However, high variabilities were observed between the uptake potential of different PFAS and between plant species. (3,5) Pyrolysis can mineralize the PFAS in the phytoremediation biomass, (6) providing a win–win solution in which PFAS is eliminated from biomass (6) and other biosolids (7) through pyrolysis, generating biochar. This is a sustainable sorbent material (4,8) with co-benefits in terms of carbon sequestration (1–2 t of CO2 equivalents/t of biochar (9)), sustainable waste management, (2,6) and energy generation during pyrolysis. (2)A Virtuous CycleClick to copy section linkSection link copied!We propose a virtuous cycle by using phytoremediation for the accumulation of short-chain PFAS, destroying them by pyrolytic treatment, and applying the resulting PFAS-free biochar as a sorbent to immobilize long-chain PFAS (Figure 1). Pyrolyzing the contaminated plant biomass alleviates the constraints of biomass disposal. The proposed cycle takes advantage of the high phytoextraction potential for (ultra)short-chain PFAS, which are less strongly sorbed to biochar. We further suggest that the addition of biochar to forages may reduce the uptake and bioavailability of PFAS, thereby reducing PFAS contamination in milk and meat.Figure 1Figure 1. Phytoremediation–pyrolysis–biochar virtuous cycle including biochar-amended soil and ruminant feed.High Resolution ImageDownload MS PowerPoint SlideTo optimize the combined remediation by this cycle, pyrolysis probably needs to be conducted above 800 °C to ensure PFAS destruction (6) and sufficient size of the pores in the biochar (>2 nm (4,10)) to sorb PFAS molecules (>1.5 nm (8)). Amendment with 1% sludge biochar or (activated) high-T wood biochar reduced the level of leaching of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) from contaminated soil by up to 92–99%, (8,10) with notably better effectiveness for long-chain than for short-chain (C4–5) PFAS (40–70% (8)).Roughly 5 t of dry weight (dw) (ha of grass)−1 year–1, approximately one-third of the total harvest, could be turned into 1 t of biochar to be applied on 1 ha per year. Acquiring enough biochar to amend the top 20 cm of a soil (ρ = 1.3 g cm–3) with 1% biochar would then take ∼25 years. Using co-pyrolysis with alternative feedstocks such as manure, (11) crop residues, biosolids, (7,8) or reeds (10) could shorten this time frame. Assuming a biochar price of € 1000 t–1, the cost would be € 25 000 ha–1 plus the cost of the incorporation into the soil plus the cost of fodder yield losses. The overall cost would be lower than that of more intrusive methods (2) and could further be reduced by incorporating carbon credits of up to € 150 (t of CO2)−1 by 2030. (11,12)Optimizing PFAS PhytoremediationClick to copy section linkSection link copied!The effectiveness of PFAS phytoremediation strongly depends on the local conditions and the bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) of the PFAS in the particular soil–plant system. The BAF ranges from ∼10 for short-chain PFBS and PFBA to ∼1 for long-chain PFOS and PFOA. (13) Phytoremediation times with 5 t of dw plant harvest ha–1 year–1 are on the order of 50–500 years, underscoring the need to identify hyperaccumulator crops with high BAFs. Such crops will reduce the phytoremediation time for short-chain PFAS to below a few dozen years, (13) on the same order of magnitude as the time needed to harvest enough biomass to administer 1% biochar.Biochar-Amended Fodder to Reduce the Levels of PFAS in Meat and MilkClick to copy section linkSection link copied!Biochar administration may improve animal health as well as meat and milk production. (12) Ruminants have been fed approximately 100–400 g of biochar day–1 while consuming 10 kg of dw grass day–1. (12) Biochar reduces PFAS bioaccessibility and thus uptake in the digestive tract, resulting in a reduced level of accumulation in body tissues, reducing chronic animal health risk as well as PFAS levels in milk and meat. Biochar–water distribution ratios, Kd, reach 106 L kg–1 for PFOS, (8) far above grass–water Kd's (20–50 L kg–1). (13) Thus, biochar could reduce the PFOS bioavailability in the digestive tract by ≤700-fold. Actual reductions may be less due to (i) incomplete fodder–biochar mixing in the rumen and intestine, (ii) natural organic matter reducing the biochar Kd, (8) (iii) weaker sorption of short-chain PFAS to biochar, (8) (iv) 250 g of biochar day–1 being too little to "depurate" PFAS from a 500 kg ruminant, (14,15) and (v) digestive fluids increasing PFAS chemical activity. (14) Conversely, the slightly acidic rumen environment (pH 5.8) could weaken the electrostatic repulsion between the biochar and the PFAS polar headgroups. (4) Also, digested biochar present in manure could play a role in further sorbing PFAS as well as increasing soil fertility. (12)Restoration of PFAS-Contaminated FarmlandClick to copy section linkSection link copied!Pyrolyzing the entire harvest should be considered a last resort for farmland too contaminated for crop and fodder production. Alternatively, converting only 10–20% of the harvested biomass into biochar could reduce PFAS availability more gradually, offering a long-term solution with climate co-benefits while not compromising farmer income, especially with compensation payments. (16)There are indications that biochar amendments could be effective over increased time scales. The matrix itself is >80% stable for millennia, (9) and the sorption strength can increase with time due to slow diffusion into deeper narrow biochar pores (8) and incorporation into soil aggregates. (17)The best solution for preventing PFAS contamination of farmland is to prevent it ever entering; however, for already compromised land, application of a phytoremediation–pyrolysis–biochar virtuous cycle could help restore soil quality. Optimization should be done by long-term field trials, including various herbage species and agroforestry approaches and varying pyrolysis conditions. Hyperaccumulators could be grown on 10–20% of the land, pyrolyzed and back-applied, after which grass would be reseeded. Remediation of the entire land would then be achieved after a decade.Author InformationClick to copy section linkSection link copied!Corresponding AuthorGerard Cornelissen - Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, Norway; Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås 1432, Norway; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2033-9514; Email: [email protected]AuthorsNathalie Briels - ARCHE Consulting, Ghent 9032, Belgium; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1310-3004Thomas D. Bucheli - Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Zürich 8046, Switzerland; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9971-3104Nicolas Estoppey - Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, NorwayAndrea Gredelj - Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, Norway; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7766-871XNikolas Hagemann - Environmental Analytics, Agroscope, Zürich 8046, Switzerland; Ithaka Institute, Goldbach 63773, GermanySylvain Lerch - Ruminant Nutrition and Emissions, Agroscope, Posieux 1725, Switzerland; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0957-8012Simon Lotz - Ithaka Institute, Arbaz 1974, SwitzerlandDaniel Rasse - Norwegian Institute for Bioeconomy (NIBIO), Ås 1432, Norway; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5977-3863Hans-Peter Schmidt - Ithaka Institute, Arbaz 1974, Switzerland; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8275-7506Erlend Sørmo - Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, Norway; Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU), Ås 1432, Norway; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3345-8777Hans Peter H. Arp - Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Oslo 0484, Norway; Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim 7491, Norway; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0747-8838NotesThe authors declare no competing financial interest.ReferencesClick to copy section linkSection link copied! This article references 17 other publications. 1Jha, G.; Kankarla, V.; McLennon, E.; Pal, S.; Sihi, D.; Dari, B.; Diaz, D.; Nocco, M. Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in integrated crop–livestock systems: environmental exposure and human health risks. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18 (23), 12550, DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182312550 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.2Mahinroosta, R.; Senevirathna, L. A review of the emerging treatment technologies for PFAS contaminated soils. J. Environ. Manage. 2020, 255, 109896, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109896 Google Scholar2A review of the emerging treatment technologies for PFAS contaminated soilsMahinroosta, Reza; Senevirathna, LalanthaJournal of Environmental Management (2020), 255 (), 109896CODEN: JEVMAW; ISSN:0301-4797. (Elsevier Ltd.) A review. Contamination of soils with poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has become a challenging issue due to the adverse effects of these substances on both the environment and public health. PFAS have strong chem. structures and their bonding with soil makes them challenging to eliminate from soil environments. Traditional methods of soil remediation have not been successful in their redn. or removal from the environment. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of existing and emerging technologies for remediating PFAS contaminated soils with guidance on which approach to use in different contexts. The functions of all remediation technologies, their suitability, limitations, and the scale applied from lab. to the field are presented as a baseline for understanding the research need for treatment in soil environments. To date, the immobilization method has been a significant part of the remediation soln. for PFAS contaminated soils, although its long-term efficiency still needs further investigation. Soil washing and thermal treatment techniques have been tested at the field scale, but they are expensive and energy-intensive due to the use of a large vol. of washing solvent and the high m.p. of PFAS, resp.; both methods need a large initial investment for their installation. Other remediation technologies, such as chem. oxidn., ball milling, and electron beams, have been progressed in the lab. However, addnl. research is needed to make them feasible, cost-effective and applicable in the field. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXitlehu7jF&md5=6ada5e90a8dd3ce1e82820711956bfc73Mayakaduwage, S.; Ekanayake, A.; Kurwadkar, S.; Rajapaksha, A. U.; Vithanage, M. Phytoremediation prospects of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances: a review. Environ. Res. 2022, 212, 113311, DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113311 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.4Liang, D.; Li, C.; Chen, H.; Sørmo, E.; Cornelissen, G.; Gao, Y.; Reguyal, F.; Sarmah, A.; Ippolito, J.; Kammann, C. A critical review of biochar for the remediation of PFAS-contaminated soil and water. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 951, 174962– 174962, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174962 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.5Gredelj, A.; Polesel, F.; Trapp, S. Model-based analysis of the uptake of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) from soil into plants. Chemosphere 2020, 244, 125534, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125534 Google Scholar5Model-based analysis of the uptake of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) from soil into plantsGredelj, Andrea; Polesel, Fabio; Trapp, StefanChemosphere (2020), 244 (), 125534CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.) Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) bioaccumulate in crops, with uptake being particularly high for short-chain PFAAs that are constantly transported with transpiration water to aerial plant parts. Due to their amphiphilic surfactant nature and ionized state at environmental pH, predicting the partitioning behavior of PFAAs is difficult and subject to considerable uncertainty, making exptl. data highly desirable. Here, we applied a plant uptake model that combines advective flux with measured partition coeffs. to reproduce the set of empirically derived plant uptake and soil-partitioning data for nine PFAAs in red chicory, in order to improve the mechanistic understanding and provide new insights into the complex uptake processes. We introduced a new parameter for retarded uptake (R) to explain the slow transfer of PFAA across biomembranes of the root epidermis, which has led to low transpiration stream concn. factors (TSCFs) presented in literature so far. We estd. R values for PFAAs using exptl. data derived for red chicory and used the modified plant uptake model to simulate uptake of PFAA into other crops. Results show that this semi-empirical model predicted PFAAs transport to shoots and fruits with good accuracy based on exptl. root to soil concn. factors (RCFdw) and soil to water partition coeffs. (Kd) as well as estd. R values and plant-specific data for growth and transpiration. It can be concluded that the combination of rather low Kd with high RCFdw and the absence of any relevant loss are the reason for the obsd. excellent plant uptake of PFAAs. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXisVSksbrI&md5=657613d4b354772609c9d37321b775646Sørmo, E.; Castro, G.; Hubert, M.; Licul-Kucera, V.; Quintanilla, M.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Cornelissen, G.; Arp, H. P. H. The decomposition and emission factors of a wide range of PFAS in diverse, contaminated organic waste fractions undergoing dry pyrolysis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2023, 454, 131447, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131447 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.7Morales, M.; Arp, H. P. H.; Castro, G.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Sørmo, E.; Peters, G.; Cherubini, F. Eco-toxicological and climate change effects of sludge thermal treatments: Pathways towards zero pollution and negative emissions. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 470, 134242, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134242 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.8Sørmo, E.; Lade, C. B. M.; Zhang, J.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Åsli, G. W.; Hubert, M.; Goranov, A. I.; Arp, H. P. H.; Cornelissen, G. Stabilization of PFAS-contaminated soil with sewage sludge-and wood-based biochar sorbents. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 922, 170971, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170971 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.9Schmidt, H. P.; Anca-Couce, A.; Hagemann, N.; Werner, C.; Gerten, D.; Lucht, W.; Kammann, C. Pyrogenic carbon capture and storage. GCB Bioenergy 2019, 11 (4), 573– 591, DOI: 10.1111/gcbb.12553 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.10Liu, N.; Wu, C.; Lyu, G.; Li, M. Efficient adsorptive removal of short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids using reed straw-derived biochar (RESCA). Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 798, 149191, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149191 Google Scholar10Efficient adsorptive removal of short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids using reed straw-derived biochar (RESCA)Liu, Na; Wu, Chen; Lyu, Guifen; Li, MengyanScience of the Total Environment (2021), 798 (), 149191CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.) Drinking water and groundwater treatment of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) heavily relies on adsorption-based approaches using carbonaceous materials, such as granular activated carbon (GAC). Application of GAC is restricted by its inefficiency to remove short-chain PFAAs that have prevalently emerged as substitutes and/or metabolites of long-chain polyfluoroalkyl and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Here, we synthesized reed straw-derived biochar (RESCA) exhibiting exceptional removal efficiencies (>92%) toward short-chain PFAAs at environment-relevant concns. (e.g., 1μg/L). Pseudo-second-order kinetic consts. of RESCA were 1.13 and 1.23 L/(mg h) for perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), resp., over six times greater than GAC. SEM imaging and BET anal. revealed the combination of highly hydrophobic surface and scattered distribution of mesopores (2-10 nm in diam.) was assocd. with the rapid adsorption of short-chain PFAAs. RESCA-packed filters demonstrated effective removal of the mixt. of three short-chain and three long-chain PFAAs in the influent with the flow rate up to 45 mL/min. In contrast, GAC-packed filters were significantly less efficient in the removal of short-chain PFAAs, which were also neg. affected by the increase of the flow rate. Efficacy of RESCA-packed filters was also validated in four PFAA-spiked groundwater samples from different sites. Dissolved org. matter (DOC) of >8 mg/L can neg. affect the removal of short-chain PFAAs by RESCA. Feasibility of scaling up the RESCA adsorption system was investigated using breakthrough simulation. Overall, RESCA represents a green adsorbent alternative for the feasible and scalable treatment of a wide spectrum of PFAAs of different chain lengths and functional moieties. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhs1yqsbzL&md5=f6bfad91650a39d7d37ebdf7aea9c3be11Rathnayake, D.; Schmidt, H. P.; Leifeld, J.; Mayer, J.; Epper, C. A.; Bucheli, T. D.; Hagemann, N. Biochar from animal manure: A critical assessment on technical feasibility, economic viability, and ecological impact. GCB Bioenergy 2023, 15 (9), 1078– 1104, DOI: 10.1111/gcbb.13082 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.12Schmidt, H.-P.; Hagemann, N.; Draper, K.; Kammann, C. The use of biochar in animal feeding. PeerJ 2019, 7, e7373 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7373 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.13Lesmeister, L.; Lange, F. T.; Breuer, J.; Biegel-Engler, A.; Giese, E.; Scheurer, M. Extending the knowledge about PFAS bioaccumulation factors for agricultural plants–A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 766, 142640, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142640 Google Scholar13Extending the knowledge about PFAS bioaccumulation factors for agricultural plants - A reviewLesmeister, Lukas; Lange, Frank Thomas; Breuer, Joern; Biegel-Engler, Annegret; Giese, Evelyn; Scheurer, MarcoScience of the Total Environment (2021), 766 (), 142640CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.) A review. A main source of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) residues in agricultural plants is their uptake from contaminated soil. Bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) can be an important tool to derive recommendations for cultivation or handling of crops prior consumption. This review compiles >4500 soil-to-plant BAFs for 45 PFASs from 24 studies involving 27 genera of agricultural crops. Grasses (Poaceae) provided most BAFs with the highest no. of values for perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid. Influencing factors on PFAS transfer like compd.-specific properties (hydrophobicity, chain length, functional group, etc.), plant species, compartments, and other boundary conditions are critically discussed. Throughout the literature, BAFs were higher for vegetative plant compartments than for reproductive and storage organs. Decreasing BAFs per addnl. perfluorinated carbon were clearly apparent for aboveground parts (up to 1.16 in grains) but not always for roots (partly down to zero). Combining all BAFs per single perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (C4-C14) and sulfonic acid (C4-C10), median log BAFs decreased by -0.25(±0.029) and -0.24(±0.013) per fluorinated carbon, resp. For the first time, the plant uptake of ultra-short-chain (≤ C3) perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) was reviewed and showed a ubiquitous occurrence of trifluoroacetic acid in plants independent from the presence of other PFAAs. Based on identified knowledge gaps, it is suggested to focus on the uptake of precursors to PFAAs, PFAAs ≤C3, and addnl. emerging PFASs such as GenX or fluorinated ethers in future research. Studies regarding the uptake of PFASs by sugar cane, which accounts for about one fifth of the global crop prodn., are completely lacking and are also recommended. Furthermore, aq. soil leachates should be tested as an alternative to the solvent extn. of soils as a base for BAF calcns. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitFSmsrbM&md5=b3649aaabb2470c0d8db2f92dfb3f41c14Hilber, I.; Arrigo, Y.; Zuber, M.; Bucheli, T. D. Desorption resistance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in biochars incubated in cow ruminal liquid in vitro and in vivo. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (23), 13695– 13703, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04340 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.15Lastel, M.-L.; Fournier, A.; Jurjanz, S.; Thomé, J.-P.; Joaquim-Justo, C.; Archimède, H.; Mahieu, M.; Feidt, C.; Rychen, G. Comparison of chlordecone and NDL-PCB decontamination dynamics in growing male kids after cessation of oral exposure: Is there a potential to decrease the body levels of these pollutants by dietary supplementation of activated carbon or paraffin oil?. Chemosphere 2018, 193, 100– 107, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.120 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.16Werner, C.; Schmidt, H.-P.; Gerten, D.; Lucht, W.; Kammann, C. Biogeochemical potential of biomass pyrolysis systems for limiting global warming to 1.5 C. Environ. Res. Lett. 2018, 13 (4), 044036, DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/aabb0e Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.17Obia, A.; Mulder, J.; Martinsen, V.; Cornelissen, G.; Borresen, T. In situ effects of biochar on aggregation, water retention and porosity in light-textured tropical soils. Soil Tillage Res. 2016, 155, 35– 44, DOI: 10.1016/j.still.2015.08.002 Google ScholarThere is no corresponding record for this reference.Cited By Click to copy section linkSection link copied!This article has not yet been cited by other publications.Download PDFFiguresReferences Get e-AlertsGet e-AlertsJournal of Agricultural and Food ChemistryCite this: J. Agric. Food Chem. 2025, XXXX, XXX, XXX-XXXClick to copy citationCitation copied!https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c00651Published January 29, 2025 Publication History Received 14 January 2025Published online 29 January 2025© 2025 The Authors. Published by American Chemical Society. This publication is licensed under CC-BY 4.0 . 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Find more information about Crossref citation counts.The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated.Recommended Articles FiguresReferencesAbstractHigh Resolution ImageDownload MS PowerPoint SlideFigure 1Figure 1. Phytoremediation–pyrolysis–biochar virtuous cycle including biochar-amended soil and ruminant feed.High Resolution ImageDownload MS PowerPoint SlideReferences This article references 17 other publications. 1Jha, G.; Kankarla, V.; McLennon, E.; Pal, S.; Sihi, D.; Dari, B.; Diaz, D.; Nocco, M. Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in integrated crop–livestock systems: environmental exposure and human health risks. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18 (23), 12550, DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182312550 There is no corresponding record for this reference.2Mahinroosta, R.; Senevirathna, L. A review of the emerging treatment technologies for PFAS contaminated soils. J. Environ. Manage. 2020, 255, 109896, DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.109896 2A review of the emerging treatment technologies for PFAS contaminated soilsMahinroosta, Reza; Senevirathna, LalanthaJournal of Environmental Management (2020), 255 (), 109896CODEN: JEVMAW; ISSN:0301-4797. (Elsevier Ltd.) A review. Contamination of soils with poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has become a challenging issue due to the adverse effects of these substances on both the environment and public health. PFAS have strong chem. structures and their bonding with soil makes them challenging to eliminate from soil environments. Traditional methods of soil remediation have not been successful in their redn. or removal from the environment. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of existing and emerging technologies for remediating PFAS contaminated soils with guidance on which approach to use in different contexts. The functions of all remediation technologies, their suitability, limitations, and the scale applied from lab. to the field are presented as a baseline for understanding the research need for treatment in soil environments. To date, the immobilization method has been a significant part of the remediation soln. for PFAS contaminated soils, although its long-term efficiency still needs further investigation. Soil washing and thermal treatment techniques have been tested at the field scale, but they are expensive and energy-intensive due to the use of a large vol. of washing solvent and the high m.p. of PFAS, resp.; both methods need a large initial investment for their installation. Other remediation technologies, such as chem. oxidn., ball milling, and electron beams, have been progressed in the lab. However, addnl. research is needed to make them feasible, cost-effective and applicable in the field. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXitlehu7jF&md5=6ada5e90a8dd3ce1e82820711956bfc73Mayakaduwage, S.; Ekanayake, A.; Kurwadkar, S.; Rajapaksha, A. U.; Vithanage, M. Phytoremediation prospects of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances: a review. Environ. Res. 2022, 212, 113311, DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113311 There is no corresponding record for this reference.4Liang, D.; Li, C.; Chen, H.; Sørmo, E.; Cornelissen, G.; Gao, Y.; Reguyal, F.; Sarmah, A.; Ippolito, J.; Kammann, C. A critical review of biochar for the remediation of PFAS-contaminated soil and water. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 951, 174962– 174962, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174962 There is no corresponding record for this reference.5Gredelj, A.; Polesel, F.; Trapp, S. Model-based analysis of the uptake of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) from soil into plants. Chemosphere 2020, 244, 125534, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125534 5Model-based analysis of the uptake of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) from soil into plantsGredelj, Andrea; Polesel, Fabio; Trapp, StefanChemosphere (2020), 244 (), 125534CODEN: CMSHAF; ISSN:0045-6535. (Elsevier Ltd.) Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) bioaccumulate in crops, with uptake being particularly high for short-chain PFAAs that are constantly transported with transpiration water to aerial plant parts. Due to their amphiphilic surfactant nature and ionized state at environmental pH, predicting the partitioning behavior of PFAAs is difficult and subject to considerable uncertainty, making exptl. data highly desirable. Here, we applied a plant uptake model that combines advective flux with measured partition coeffs. to reproduce the set of empirically derived plant uptake and soil-partitioning data for nine PFAAs in red chicory, in order to improve the mechanistic understanding and provide new insights into the complex uptake processes. We introduced a new parameter for retarded uptake (R) to explain the slow transfer of PFAA across biomembranes of the root epidermis, which has led to low transpiration stream concn. factors (TSCFs) presented in literature so far. We estd. R values for PFAAs using exptl. data derived for red chicory and used the modified plant uptake model to simulate uptake of PFAA into other crops. Results show that this semi-empirical model predicted PFAAs transport to shoots and fruits with good accuracy based on exptl. root to soil concn. factors (RCFdw) and soil to water partition coeffs. (Kd) as well as estd. R values and plant-specific data for growth and transpiration. It can be concluded that the combination of rather low Kd with high RCFdw and the absence of any relevant loss are the reason for the obsd. excellent plant uptake of PFAAs. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BC1MXisVSksbrI&md5=657613d4b354772609c9d37321b775646Sørmo, E.; Castro, G.; Hubert, M.; Licul-Kucera, V.; Quintanilla, M.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Cornelissen, G.; Arp, H. P. H. The decomposition and emission factors of a wide range of PFAS in diverse, contaminated organic waste fractions undergoing dry pyrolysis. J. Hazard. Mater. 2023, 454, 131447, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131447 There is no corresponding record for this reference.7Morales, M.; Arp, H. P. H.; Castro, G.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Sørmo, E.; Peters, G.; Cherubini, F. Eco-toxicological and climate change effects of sludge thermal treatments: Pathways towards zero pollution and negative emissions. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 470, 134242, DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134242 There is no corresponding record for this reference.8Sørmo, E.; Lade, C. B. M.; Zhang, J.; Asimakopoulos, A. G.; Åsli, G. W.; Hubert, M.; Goranov, A. I.; Arp, H. P. H.; Cornelissen, G. Stabilization of PFAS-contaminated soil with sewage sludge-and wood-based biochar sorbents. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 922, 170971, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170971 There is no corresponding record for this reference.9Schmidt, H. P.; Anca-Couce, A.; Hagemann, N.; Werner, C.; Gerten, D.; Lucht, W.; Kammann, C. Pyrogenic carbon capture and storage. GCB Bioenergy 2019, 11 (4), 573– 591, DOI: 10.1111/gcbb.12553 There is no corresponding record for this reference.10Liu, N.; Wu, C.; Lyu, G.; Li, M. Efficient adsorptive removal of short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids using reed straw-derived biochar (RESCA). Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 798, 149191, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149191 10Efficient adsorptive removal of short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids using reed straw-derived biochar (RESCA)Liu, Na; Wu, Chen; Lyu, Guifen; Li, MengyanScience of the Total Environment (2021), 798 (), 149191CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.) Drinking water and groundwater treatment of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) heavily relies on adsorption-based approaches using carbonaceous materials, such as granular activated carbon (GAC). Application of GAC is restricted by its inefficiency to remove short-chain PFAAs that have prevalently emerged as substitutes and/or metabolites of long-chain polyfluoroalkyl and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Here, we synthesized reed straw-derived biochar (RESCA) exhibiting exceptional removal efficiencies (>92%) toward short-chain PFAAs at environment-relevant concns. (e.g., 1μg/L). Pseudo-second-order kinetic consts. of RESCA were 1.13 and 1.23 L/(mg h) for perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), resp., over six times greater than GAC. SEM imaging and BET anal. revealed the combination of highly hydrophobic surface and scattered distribution of mesopores (2-10 nm in diam.) was assocd. with the rapid adsorption of short-chain PFAAs. RESCA-packed filters demonstrated effective removal of the mixt. of three short-chain and three long-chain PFAAs in the influent with the flow rate up to 45 mL/min. In contrast, GAC-packed filters were significantly less efficient in the removal of short-chain PFAAs, which were also neg. affected by the increase of the flow rate. Efficacy of RESCA-packed filters was also validated in four PFAA-spiked groundwater samples from different sites. Dissolved org. matter (DOC) of >8 mg/L can neg. affect the removal of short-chain PFAAs by RESCA. Feasibility of scaling up the RESCA adsorption system was investigated using breakthrough simulation. Overall, RESCA represents a green adsorbent alternative for the feasible and scalable treatment of a wide spectrum of PFAAs of different chain lengths and functional moieties. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3MXhs1yqsbzL&md5=f6bfad91650a39d7d37ebdf7aea9c3be11Rathnayake, D.; Schmidt, H. P.; Leifeld, J.; Mayer, J.; Epper, C. A.; Bucheli, T. D.; Hagemann, N. Biochar from animal manure: A critical assessment on technical feasibility, economic viability, and ecological impact. GCB Bioenergy 2023, 15 (9), 1078– 1104, DOI: 10.1111/gcbb.13082 There is no corresponding record for this reference.12Schmidt, H.-P.; Hagemann, N.; Draper, K.; Kammann, C. The use of biochar in animal feeding. PeerJ 2019, 7, e7373 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7373 There is no corresponding record for this reference.13Lesmeister, L.; Lange, F. T.; Breuer, J.; Biegel-Engler, A.; Giese, E.; Scheurer, M. Extending the knowledge about PFAS bioaccumulation factors for agricultural plants–A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 766, 142640, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142640 13Extending the knowledge about PFAS bioaccumulation factors for agricultural plants - A reviewLesmeister, Lukas; Lange, Frank Thomas; Breuer, Joern; Biegel-Engler, Annegret; Giese, Evelyn; Scheurer, MarcoScience of the Total Environment (2021), 766 (), 142640CODEN: STENDL; ISSN:0048-9697. (Elsevier B.V.) A review. A main source of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) residues in agricultural plants is their uptake from contaminated soil. Bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) can be an important tool to derive recommendations for cultivation or handling of crops prior consumption. This review compiles >4500 soil-to-plant BAFs for 45 PFASs from 24 studies involving 27 genera of agricultural crops. Grasses (Poaceae) provided most BAFs with the highest no. of values for perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid. Influencing factors on PFAS transfer like compd.-specific properties (hydrophobicity, chain length, functional group, etc.), plant species, compartments, and other boundary conditions are critically discussed. Throughout the literature, BAFs were higher for vegetative plant compartments than for reproductive and storage organs. Decreasing BAFs per addnl. perfluorinated carbon were clearly apparent for aboveground parts (up to 1.16 in grains) but not always for roots (partly down to zero). Combining all BAFs per single perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid (C4-C14) and sulfonic acid (C4-C10), median log BAFs decreased by -0.25(±0.029) and -0.24(±0.013) per fluorinated carbon, resp. For the first time, the plant uptake of ultra-short-chain (≤ C3) perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) was reviewed and showed a ubiquitous occurrence of trifluoroacetic acid in plants independent from the presence of other PFAAs. Based on identified knowledge gaps, it is suggested to focus on the uptake of precursors to PFAAs, PFAAs ≤C3, and addnl. emerging PFASs such as GenX or fluorinated ethers in future research. Studies regarding the uptake of PFASs by sugar cane, which accounts for about one fifth of the global crop prodn., are completely lacking and are also recommended. Furthermore, aq. soil leachates should be tested as an alternative to the solvent extn. of soils as a base for BAF calcns. >> More from SciFinder ®https://chemport.cas.org/services/resolver?origin=ACS&resolution=options&coi=1%3ACAS%3A528%3ADC%252BB3cXitFSmsrbM&md5=b3649aaabb2470c0d8db2f92dfb3f41c14Hilber, I.; Arrigo, Y.; Zuber, M.; Bucheli, T. D. Desorption resistance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in biochars incubated in cow ruminal liquid in vitro and in vivo. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53 (23), 13695– 13703, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b04340 There is no corresponding record for this reference.15Lastel, M.-L.; Fournier, A.; Jurjanz, S.; Thomé, J.-P.; Joaquim-Justo, C.; Archimède, H.; Mahieu, M.; Feidt, C.; Rychen, G. Comparison of chlordecone and NDL-PCB decontamination dynamics in growing male kids after cessation of oral exposure: Is there a potential to decrease the body levels of these pollutants by dietary supplementation of activated carbon or paraffin oil?. Chemosphere 2018, 193, 100– 107, DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.120 There is no corresponding record for this reference.16Werner, C.; Schmidt, H.-P.; Gerten, D.; Lucht, W.; Kammann, C. Biogeochemical potential of biomass pyrolysis systems for limiting global warming to 1.5 C. Environ. Res. Lett. 2018, 13 (4), 044036, DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/aabb0e There is no corresponding record for this reference.17Obia, A.; Mulder, J.; Martinsen, V.; Cornelissen, G.; Borresen, T. In situ effects of biochar on aggregation, water retention and porosity in light-textured tropical soils. Soil Tillage Res. 2016, 155, 35– 44, DOI: 10.1016/j.still.2015.08.002 There is no corresponding record for this reference.