The development of phrase‐frames in EFL learners’ essays: Variability, structures, and functions

Abstract Phrase‐frames (i.e., p‐frames) are a type of discontinuous formulaic language that have long been of interest to linguists in L2 writing research. Studies have explored p‐frames in different types of texts, but few have investigated p‐frames in learners’ essays, and it remains unclear at which level learners will begin to use p‐frames in native‐like ways. Drawing on a self‐compiled corpus of 1061 learner essays, this study explores the four‐word p‐frames used by Chinese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners across four proficiency groups (pre‐B1, B1, B2, C1&C2) and analyzes the p‐frames regarding their variability, structures, and functions. The study also compares the p‐frames used by learners with those used by L1 English‐speaking students in terms of the three characteristics mentioned above. The results show that: (1) learners at more advanced proficiency levels use more varied p‐frames and more function word frames; (2) when learners have achieved C1&C2 levels they can use p‐frames in similar ways to L1 English‐speaking students regarding variability and structure; and (3) pre‐B1 learners are less skilled in using referential and discourse organizing expressions, probably due to a lower capability in the use of function word structures and cohesive devices. The findings help to advance our understanding of p‐frame development across proficiency levels, and offer some pedagogical implications for the teaching and learning of formulaic language.