Long-term exposure to wildland fire smoke PM 2.5 and mortality in the contiguous United States

Despite the substantial evidence on the health effects of short-term exposure to ambient fine particles (PM 2.5 ), including increasing studies focusing on those from wildland fire smoke, the impacts of long-term wildland fire smoke PM 2.5 exposure remain unclear. We investigated the association between long-term exposure to wildland fire smoke PM 2.5 and nonaccidental mortality and mortality from a wide range of specific causes in all 3,108 counties in the contiguous United States, 2007 to 2020. Controlling for nonsmoke PM 2.5 , air temperature, and unmeasured spatial and temporal confounders, we found a nonlinear association between 12-mo moving average concentration of smoke PM 2.5 and monthly nonaccidental mortality rate. Relative to a month with the long-term smoke PM 2.5 exposure below 0.1 μg/m 3 , nonaccidental mortality increased by 0.16 to 0.63 and 2.11 deaths per 100,000 people per month when the 12-mo moving average of PM 2.5 concentration was of 0.1 to 5 and 5+ μg/m 3 , respectively. Cardiovascular, ischemic heart disease, digestive, endocrine, diabetes, mental, and chronic kidney disease mortality were all found to be associated with long-term wildland fire smoke PM 2.5 exposure. Smoke PM 2.5 contributed to approximately 11,415 nonaccidental deaths/y (95% CI: 6,754, 16,075) in the contiguous United States. Higher smoke PM 2.5 -related increases in mortality rates were found for people aged 65 and above. Positive interaction effects with extreme heat were also observed. Our study identified the detrimental effects of long-term exposure to wildland fire smoke PM 2.5 on a wide range of mortality outcomes, underscoring the need for public health actions and communications that span the health risks of both short- and long-term exposure.