The efficacy of combining cognitive training and noninvasive brain stimulation: A transdiagnostic systematic review and meta-analysis.

Over the past decade, an increasing number of studies investigated the innovative approach of supplementing cognitive training (CT) with noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) to increase the effects on outcomes.In this review, we aim to summarize the evidence for this treatment combination.We identified 72 published and unpublished studies (reporting 773 effect sizes), including 2,518 participants from healthy and clinical populations indexed in PubMed, MEDLINE, APA PsycInfo, ProQuest, Web of Science, and https://ClinicalTrials.gov (last search: August 9, 2022) that compared the effects of NIBS combined with CT on cognitive, symptoms, and everyday functioning to CT alone at postintervention and/or follow-up.We performed random-effects meta-analyses with robust variance estimation and assessed risk of bias with the Cochrane ROB tool.Only four studies had low risk of bias in all domains, and many studies lacked standard controls such as keeping the outcome assessor and trainer unaware of the treatment condition.Following sensitivity analyses, only learning/memory robustly improved significantly more when CT was combined with NIBS compared to CT only (g = 0.18, 95% CI [0.07, 0.29]) at postintervention, but not in the long term.The effect was small and limited by substantial heterogeneity.The other seven cognitive outcome domains, symptoms, and everyday functioning did not benefit from adding NIBS to CT.Given the methodological limitation of prior studies, more highquality trials that focus on the potential of combining NIBS and CT to enhance benefits in everyday functioning in the short and long term are needed to evaluate whether combining NIBS and CT is relevant for clinical practice. Public Significance StatementNoninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) as potential treatment enhancer of cognitive training has gained considerable attention in the past decade.This meta-analysis of 72 studies in clinical and healthy populations does not support the idea that adding NIBS is more beneficial than cognitive training on its own.However, substantial methodological issues concerning the design of studies and applied cognitive training protocols remain in the way of drawing firm conclusions on the additive effect of NIBS.