Dual heterogeneous interfaces enhance X-ray excited persistent luminescence for low-dose 3D imaging

Abstract Lanthanide-doped fluoride nanoparticles (NPs) showcase adjustable X-ray-excited persistent luminescence (XEPL), holding significant promise for applications in three-dimensional (3D) imaging through the creation of flexible X-ray detectors. However, a dangerous high X-ray irradiation dose rate and complicated heating procedure are required to generate efficient XEPL for high-resolution 3D imaging, which is attributed to a lack of strategies to significantly enhance the XEPL intensity. Here we report that the XEPL intensity of a series of lanthanide activators (Dy, Pr, Er, Tm, Gd, Tb) is greatly improved by constructing dual heterogeneous interfaces in a double-shell nanostructure. Mechanistic studies indicate that the employed core@shell@shell structure could not only passivate the surface quenchers to lower the non-radiative relaxation possibility, but also reduce the interfacial Frenkel defect formation energy leading to increase the trap concentration. By employing a NPs containing flexible film as the scintillation screen, the inside 3D electrical structure of a watch was clearly achieved based on the delayed XEPL imaging and 3D reconstruction procedure. We foresee that these findings will promote the development of advanced X-ray activated persistent fluoride NPs and offer opportunities for safer and more efficient X-ray imaging techniques in a number of scientific and practical areas.