Phage–nanomaterial platforms for precision antimicrobial therapy: from design to therapeutic application

The rapid increase in multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria and biofilm-associated infections has intensified the global need for innovative antimicrobial strategies. Phage therapy offers promising precision against MDR pathogens by utilizing the natural ability of phages to specifically infect and lyse bacteria. However, their clinical application is hampered by challenges such as narrow host range, immune clearance and limited efficacy within biofilms. Nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful complementary approach, offering broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, tunable physical properties and responsive functionality. Despite these advantages, most nanomaterials lack precise bacterial targeting and may pose biosafety risks. The combination of phages and nanomaterials opens new avenues for synergistic antibacterial therapy. Nanomaterials not only enhance phage stability, delivery and penetration, but also enable multimodal therapy, including photothermal and photodynamic therapy. At the same time, phages endow nanomaterials with highly specific bacterial recognition and lysis activities, improving therapeutic selectivity and reducing microbiota destruction. In this paper, we review the structural features of phages, strategies to construct phage-nanomaterial platforms, the antimicrobial mechanisms of nanomaterials and their applications in different infection models. We also highlight current limitations and future directions. Together, these insights provide a foundation for the rational design of next-generation antimicrobial platforms for precision therapy.