How does renewable energy consumption and trade openness affect economic growth and carbon emissions? International evidence of 122 countries

This paper aims to systematically explore the impact of renewable energy consumption, trade openness, industrialization, and urbanization on economic growth and carbon emissions while considering the different development levels of 122 countries over the period 1998–2018. Pesaran CD test, CIPS unit root test, Pedroni cointegration test, fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) estimation, Dumitreschu–Hurlin causality test and DOLS robustness test are adopted. The results show that trade openness has different effects on economic growth and carbon emissions across different income groups. Specifically, the impact of trade openness on economic growth in high- and low-income countries is positive, while trade openness has a negative impact on economic growth in middle-income countries. Meanwhile, the impact of trade openness on carbon emissions supports the pollution haven hypothesis. Urbanization promotes economic growth in all income countries, and increases carbon emissions in countries of all income groups except high-income countries. Renewable energy consumption promotes economic growth and curbs carbon emissions, while industrialization increases economic growth and carbon emissions. Further findings show a one-way causality from trade openness to renewable energy consumption. Finally, some targeted recommendations are provided for countries with different development stages.