Surface modification of three-dimensional porous polymeric scaffolds in tissue engineering applications: A focus review on physical modifications methods

The necessary amalgamation to fabricated scaffolds may include surface and bulk properties such as desired porosity and pore size to encouraging vascular invasion, suitable surface chemistry for deposition of minerals along with enhanced ability to support adhesion, suitable surface morphology and chemistry to provide an active site, and hydrophilicity for the active attachment of cells. These surface properties trigger specific cell signaling, resulting in a positive cellular response. In order to achieve the highly functional scaffolds for an active material interface, additional surface treatment has to be done using various physical and chemical strategies to maximize the cell–interface interactions.