PKM2: A Potential Regulator of Cardiac Injury Through Glycolytic and Non-glycolytic Pathways

Adult animals are unable to regenerate heart cells due to postnatal cardiomyocyte cycle arrest, leading to higher mortality rates in cardiomyopathy. However, reprogramming of energy metabolism in cardiomyocytes provides a new perspective on the contribution of glycolysis to repair, regeneration, and fibrosis after cardiac injury. Pyruvate kinase (PK) is a key enzyme in the glycolysis process. This review focuses on the glycolysis function of PKM2, although PKM1 and PKM2 both play significant roles in the process after cardiac injury. PKM2 exists in both low-activity dimer and high-activity tetramer forms. PKM2 dimers promote aerobic glycolysis but have low catalytic activity, leading to the accumulation of glycolytic intermediates. These intermediates enter the pentose phosphate pathway to promote cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart regeneration. Additionally, they activate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive K + (K ATP ) channels, protecting the heart against ischemic damage. PKM2 tetramers function similar to PKM1 in glycolysis, promoting pyruvate oxidation and subsequently ATP generation to protect the heart from ischemic damage. They also activate KDM5 through the accumulation of αKG, thereby promoting cardiomyocyte proliferation and cardiac regeneration. Apart from glycolysis, PKM2 interacts with transcription factors like Jmjd4, RAC1, β-catenin, and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, playing various roles in homeostasis maintenance, remodeling, survival regulation, and neovascularization promotion. However, PKM2 has also been implicated in promoting cardiac fibrosis through mechanisms like sirtuin (SIRT) 3 deletion, TG2 expression enhancement, and activation of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad2/3 and Jak2/Stat3 signals. Overall, PKM2 shows promising potential as a therapeutic target for promoting cardiomyocyte proliferation and cardiac regeneration and addressing cardiac fibrosis after injury.