Electrochemical methods for the determination of urea: Current trends and future perspective

Urea is the final product of nitrogen metabolism in mammals. In human beings, it is a main indicator of liver and kidney activity and a marker for hemodialysis treatments. Furthermore, urea is used in many industrial processes, in agriculture and in the farm industries. Thus, it is important to evaluate the level of this compound in biological fluids, in environmental matrices and in food samples. Electrochemical sensors represent an interesting tool for simple, rapid, in-situ, in-flow monitoring of urea. This review focuses on the recent advancements in electrochemical sensors and biosensors for urea determination. An overview of the existing electroanalytical approaches for urea determination is presented, and some new strategies are discussed, particularly those based on nanostructuration of the electrode surface. Finally, a brief description of the role that Artificial Intelligence could have in overcoming selectivity issues and speed of the analysis is also discussed.