Management of end-stage sarcoidosis: pulmonary hypertension and lung transplantation

Sarcoidosis is not only a multisystem, but also a multinational disease that is prevalent throughout the world, including Europe, the USA and Japan. Lung involvement in sarcoidosis is seemingly invariable, with up to 95% of patients manifesting some form of pulmonary disease during the course of their lifetime. The natural history of sarcoidosis in the lung is quite variable and spans the spectrum from spontaneous resolution to advanced fibrocystic disease in ∼5% of cases. Advanced sarcoidosis will be the subject of this review with a special focus on pulmonary hypertension and lung transplantation as a last-resort treatment option for some patients with end-stage disease.