Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in Multimedia Learning: Coherence, Signaling, Redundancy, Spatial Contiguity, and Temporal Contiguity Principles

The term multimedia principle refers to the robust research finding that learning with words and pictures is more effective than learning with words alone. It should be noted that the multimedia principle refers generally to the (positive) impact of visual and verbal information on learning outcomes. However, basic principles and advanced principles of multimedia learning have been synthesized that provide a more nuanced approach to understanding how multimedia materials can be formatted for optimal impact and how learner strategies and processes can combine with multimedia materials to determine learning outcomes. That is, the multimedia principle provides a context for work that examines when, how, why, and under what conditions the multimedia principle applies. Research findings demonstrating the multimedia principle are consistent with the predictions of cognitive models of multimedia learning. Implications for instructional design and directions for future research are also discussed.