Small-molecule modulators of tumor necrosis factor signaling

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a pleiotropic cytokine with a major role in immune system homeostasis and is involved in many inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriasis, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Thus, TNF and its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, are relevant pharmacological targets. Biologics have been developed to block TNF-dependent signaling cascades, but they display serious side effects, and their pharmacological effectiveness decreases over time because of their immunogenicity. In this review, we present recent discoveries in small molecules targeting TNF and its receptors and discuss alternative strategies for modulating TNF signaling.