Wettability alteration and improved oil recovery in unconventional resources

The ultimate recovery factor in tight and shale resources is limited and is usually in the range of 5–10%. Although high-intensity fracturing and refracturing can increase recovery, an enormous amount of oil will remain in place, hence the desirability of enhanced oil recovery methods. Many of the shale reservoirs are oil-wet with negligible water uptake. By altering the wettability, water can spontaneously imbibe into the formation matrix, creating a counter-current flow that forces the oil out. Here, we assess the likelihood of increased oil recovery by modifying the fracturing-fluid composition (salinity and ion concentration) that transforms the formation wettability into a more water-wet state. Oil wetting of tight formations is usually controlled by the adhesion of oil droplets on the surface of clay minerals. When clay minerals are not predominant, the oil attached to carbonate minerals can significantly control rock wettability. In this study, we first identify the primary reactions that define the initial wettability of the rock depending on the formation mineralogy, formation water composition, and oil type. Second, we build a geochemical model considering the surface complexation of various minerals to mimic the wettability state of the reservoir. Third, we validate our method on zeta-potential, contact angle, and imbibition data from a previously published study using different fluids with different salinities. Finally, we present a mechanistic approach to model the wettability-alteration impact on spontaneous imbibition and compute the incremental oil recovery contributed by different fracturing fluid compositions. Based on the studied case, the oil adhesion to clay can be reduced by tuning the fracturing fluid salinity. The ionic concentrations of 2.5 wt % of NaCl and 5.0 wt % of CaCl 2 induced the smallest contact angles of 44.7 and 51.2°. We observe that further brine dilution increases the contact angle. For example, distilled water shows the most oil-wet condition with a contact angle to 93.4°. We argue that the main factors that maximize water wetting for the reported optimum salinities are the contrast in the rock and oil surface potential and the sodium concentration. Spontaneous-imbibition simulations indicate that the low salinity fluids promote a change in water-oil capillary pressure, leading to increased water uptake in the cores and improved oil recovery compared to distilled water. The agreement between the developed model and experimental data implies that the wettability in shale and tight formations can be quantitatively predicted and regulated. • The ultimate recovery factor in tight and shale resources is limited and is usually in the range of 5–10%. • Many of the shale reservoirs are oil-wet with negligible water imbibition. • Low-salinity brine promote a change in water-oil capillary pressure, leading to increased water uptake. • Model wettability-alteration effect on spontaneous imbibition and the impact on incremental oil recovery.