Hybrid enzymatic and nanozymatic biofuel cells for wearable and implantable biosensors

The increasing demand for wearable and implantable devices presents unprecedented opportunities for advancing self-powered systems (SPSs). Enzymatic biofuel cells (BFCs), which harvest energy through biochemical reactions, hold great potential in SPSs. However, their practical applications are constrained by challenges, including low power output and limited long-term stability. Integrating the advantages of enzymes with nanomaterials , hybrid enzymatic BFCs achieve improved electron transfer efficiency, operational stability, and mechanical flexibility. Nanozymes , as nanomaterial-based artificial enzymes, provide promising approaches to these limitations with their lost cost, high stability, and tunable properties. This review highlights recent research advances in hybrid enzymatic and nanozymatic BFCs for wearable and implantable biosensors, including applications in detecting small molecules, biomacromolecules, cells, and systems integrating diagnosis and treatment. Specifically, the advantage of nanomaterials in signal amplification strategies for SPSs is emphasized. Finally, a personal perspective on challenges and future opportunities for advancing BFCs in wearable and implantable biosensors is discussed. Self-powered systems based on hybrid enzymatic and nanozymatic biofuel cells (BFCs), with the merits of miniaturization, biocompatibility and real-time monitoring, have triggered tremendous interest in wearable and implantable biosensors, such as the detection of small molecules, biomacromolecules, cells, and the integration of diagnosis and treatment. This review aims to promote the development of BFCs and their application research in personalized healthcare. • Hybrid enzymatic and nanozymatic BFCs for wearable and implantable biosensors are described. • Summarizes progress in small molecules, biomacromolecules, cells, and the integration of diagnosis and treatment. • Discuss signal amplification strategies enabled by BFCs within SPSs. • Challenges and future directions for developing BFC-based SPSs are discussed.