Aqueous Multivalent Metal Ion Batteries: Fundamental Mechanism and Applications

The increasing energy consumption and the decreasing availability of nonrenewable fuel sources necessitate advances in the generation of alternative energy sources. Generation of clean and sustainable intermittent renewable energy for large-scale grid and transportation calls for the development of advanced and innovative electrical energy storage systems. Due to the advantages of manganese-based compounds such as abundant availability, environmental friendliness, and rich redox reactions, these compounds have emerged as promising options for cathode materials in batteries that use either monovalent or multivalent ions. Aqueous rechargeable multivalent metal ion batteries (ARMMBs) typically consist of a polyvalent metal anode, an aqueous electrolyte, and a cathode to hold polyvalent metal ions. Ion insertion, particularly zinc-ion insertion, is the key mechanism in aqueous zinc-ion batteries. Good temperature adaptability of aqueous electrolytes is a crucial requirement. To ensure the successful commercialization of ARMMBs, three key criteria have been recommended: safety, low cost, and high performance.