Elevated strategic partnership between India and Japan in the context of the rising power of China

ABSTRACTThe growing India-Japan engagements are not only focused on economic issues, but also cover a wide range of interests, including regional security, political, and maritime security concerns. Both countries are consolidating strategic partnerships to address the risks and vulnerabilities posed by the evolving regional balance of power. Through their embeddedness with China, both India and Japan form an intrinsic part of the Indo-Pacific geopolitical security architecture. The key transformation of relations between these two states in the region is in response to the geopolitical change brought about by China’s rapid ascension. In this regard, the article further explains how both countries are systematically strengthening a strategic partnership and gradually reinforcing economic, political, security, and strategic cooperation against China. This article seeks to address how both states would restrain rising China’s strategic maneuvering in the Indo-Pacific region through an analysis of the India-Japan alignment, with the main focus of this study being on analyzing how both India and Japan are now investing in a long-term strategy to balance China’s hegemonic policies. Disclosure statementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).Notes1 TitliBasu, “India in Japan’S Strategic Thinking: Charting Convergences in the Indo-Pacific,” The Diplomat, January 23, 2020.https://thediplomat.com/2020/01/india-in-japans-strategic-thinking-charting-convergences-in-the-indo-pacific/[Assessed July o3, 2021].2 Yogesh Joshi, and Harsh V. Pant. “Indo-Japanese Strategic Partnership and Power Transition in Asia.” India Review 14, no 3 (2015): 312–313. https://doi.org/10.1080/14736489.2015.1066215.3 Jack S. Levy. “What Do Great Powers Balance against and When?” In Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the twenty-first Century, ed, T.V. Paul, James J. Wirtz, and Michel Fortmann (California: Stanford University Press, 2004), 29–48.4 Levy, Jack S. “What Do Great Powers Balance against and When?.”5 Christopher Rahman, “Concepts of Maritime Security: A Strategic Perspective on Alternative Visions for Good Order and Security at Sea, with Policy Implications for New Zealand.” Faculty of Law – Papers, 2009. https://ro.uow.edu.au/lawpapers/85/. [assessed July 04, 2021)].6 Yoichi Funabashi, “Japan’s Moment of Truth.” Survival 42, no.4 (2000): 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/713869439.7 R.S. Yadav, “Changing India-Japan Relations in the Post-Cold War Era.” India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs 58, no. 2 (2002): 191–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/097492840205800212.8 ChietigiBajpaee, “Dephasing India’s Look East/Act East Policy.” Contemporary Southeast Asia 39, no 2 (2017): 348–353. https://doi.org/10.1355/cs39-2d.9 R.S. Yadav, “Changing India-Japan Relations in the Post-Cold War Era,” 191–195.10 Joshy M. Paul, “India – Japan Security Cooperation: A New Era of Partnership in Asia.” Maritime Affairs: Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India 8, no.1 (2012): 36. https://doi.org/10.1080/09733159.2012.690290.11 The Economic Times. “Modi’s Japan Visit 2014: India, Japan to ‘Upgrade’ Defence Cooperation,” https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/modis-japan-visit-2014-india-japan-to-upgrade-defense-cooperation/articleshow/41438657.cms?from=mdr [Accessed July 30, 2021].12 Rakhi Mazumdar, “Japan, India to Ink Rare Earths Deal: Report.” The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/japan-india-to-ink-rare_earths-deal report/articleshow/41102276.cms [Accessed July 19, 2021].13 K.V. Kesavan, “India-Japan Civil Nuclear Agreement: Differing Perceptions.” ORF. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/india-japan-civil-nuclear-agreement-perceptions/ [Accessed July 19, 2021].14 Tokyo Declaration for Japan-India Special Strategic and Global Partnership. (2014). https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000050532.pdf [Accessed July 20, 202].15 Rupa Chanda, and Tokas Kalpana, “India-Japan Relations in Services & the India-Japan Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement Table of Contents Acknowledgements.” 2020 https://www.iimb.ac.in/sites/default/files/inline-files/IJSC-rupa_chanda-kalpana_tokas.pdf. [Accessed July 21, 2021].16 Jagannath P. Panda, Scaling India-Japan Cooperation in Indo-Pacific and beyond 2025: Corridors, Connectivity and Contours. (New Delhi: Kw Publishers Pvt Ltd, 2020).2–417 Vinay Kaura, “India-Japan Relations and Asia’s Emerging Geopolitics.” Indian Journal of Asian Affairs 29, no. ½ (2016): 17–38. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412312718 Modi Terms Japan-US-India Partnership as JAI, Says It Means Success.” n.d. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/modi-terms-japan-us-india-partnership-as-jai-says-it-means-success-1400100–2018-12-01. [Accessed March 03, 2022]19 Sheila A. Smith, “Japan, the Quad and the Indo-Pacific,” The Asian Forum, June 23, 2021 https://theasanforum.org/japan-the-quad-and-the-indo-pacific/ [May 17, 2022]20 “The ‘Quad:’ Cooperation Among the United States, Japan, India, and Australia,” Congressional Research Service, January 30, 2023. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11678 [May 18, 2023]21 “The ‘Quad:’ Cooperation Among the United States, Japan, India, and Australia.”22 “Modi Terms Japan-US-India Partnership as JAI, Says It Means Success.” n.d. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/modi-terms-japan-us-india-partnership-as-jai-says-it-means-success-1400100–2018-12-01. [Accessed March 03, 2022].23 Tanvi Madan, “Between a Cold War Ally and an Indo-Pacific Partner: India’s US- Russia Balancing Act,” War on the Rock, October 16, 2018.https://warontherocks.com/2018/10/between-a-cold-war-ally-and-an-indo-pacific-partner-indias-u-s-russia-balancing-act/24 Tanvi Madan, “Between a Cold War Ally and an Indo-Pacific Partner: India’s US-Russia Balancing Act,” War on the Rock, October 16, 2018.https://warontherocks.com/2018/10/between-a-cold-war-ally-and-an-indo-pacific-partner-indias-u-s-russia-balancing-act/25 Nazim Rahim, and Asghar Ali, (2018). The Sino-Indian Geo-Strategic Rivalry: A Comparative Study of Gwadar and Chabahar Ports. The Dialogue 13, no. 1 (2018), p.3.https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=googlescholar&id=GALE|A547400028&v = 2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=e34bc85c [Accessed 21 Aug. 2021].26 Rahul Roy-Chaudhury, Rahul, “India’s Perspective toward China in Their Shared South Asian Neighbourhood: Cooperation versus Competition.” Contemporary Politics 24, no.1 (2017): 104–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2017.1408173.27 Ijaz Khalid, Shaukat, and Azka Gul, “Indian Response to Chinese String of Pearls Doctrine,” Global Political Review2, no.1 (2017):27–33. doi:10.31703/gpr.2017(ii-i).03.28 Junaid Ashraf, “String of Pearls and China’s Emerging Strategic Culture,” Strategic Studies 37, no. 4 (2017): 169. 10.2307/4853757829 David Brewster, “Silk Roads and Strings of Pearls: The Strategic Geography of China’s New Pathways in the Indian Ocean,” Geopolitics 22, no. 2 (2016):269–291. doi:10.1080/14650045.2016.1223631.30 Vineeta Bhatt, “India and China in the Maldives: Recent Developments and Emerging Trends,” Global Journal of Medical Research, (2016):96–97. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351711563_India_and_China_in_the_Maldives_Recent_Developments_and_Emerging_Trends_Global_Journal_for_Research_Analysis_-_2277–8160.31 Jacklyn Cock, “Island of shame: The secret history of the US military base on Diego Garcia,” Journal of Contemporary African Studies, (October 27, 2014): 241–243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0258900100373748632 Junaid Ashraf, “String of Pearls and China’s Emerging Strategic Culture,” Strategic Studies37, no. 4 (2017):169–171. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48537578?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents33 David Brewster, “Indian Strategic Thinking about the Indian Ocean: Striving Towards Strategic Leadership,” India Review 14, no. 2 (2015):222. doi:10.1080/14736489.2015.1030198.34 Arjun, “South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region: An Indian Perspective.” 2020. E-International Relations, https://www.e-ir.info/2020/09/14/south-asia-and-the-indian-ocean-region-an-indian-perspective/. (Accessed August 20, 2021).35 Nguyen Hung Son, “ASEAN-Japan strategic partnership in Southeast Asia: Maritime Security and Cooperation”, (Japan Center for International Exchange, Tokyo, 2013):214–227. https://www.jcie.org/japan/j/pdf/pub/publst/1451/12_nguyen.pdf36 Min Gyo Koo, “Island Disputes and Maritime Regime Building in East Asia: Between a Rock and a Hard Place”, (2009). https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm%3A978-0-387-89670-0%2F1 [Accessed May 03, 2022].37 Yoichi Kat, “China’s Naval Expansion in the Western Pacific,” Global Asia 5, no. 4 (2010). https://www.globalasia.org/v5no4/cover/chinas-naval-expansion-in-the-western-pacific_yoichi-kato.38 Ian Storey, “Japan’s Maritime Security Interests in Southeast Asia and the South China Sea Dispute,” Political Science 65, no. 2 (2013): 135–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032318713508482.39 The Straits Times, “Japan vows to help Philippines amid China Sea row,” 2013. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/japan-vows-to-help-philippines-amid-china-sea-row [Accessed May 02, 2022].40 TobiasHarris, “‘Quality Infrastructure:’ Japan’s Robust Challenge to China’s Belt and Road.” War on the Rocks. April 8, 2019. https://warontherocks.com/2019/04/quality-infrastructure-japans-robust-challenge-to-chinas-belt-and-road/‌41 Hiroaki Richard Watanabe “China – Japan Relations after RCEP.” East Asia Forum. May 3, 2022. https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2022/05/03/china-japan-relations-after-rcep/.‌42 ManjariChatterjeeMiller,“New Delhi Must Capitalize on ASEAN’s Eagerness to Engage.,” Council on Foreign Relations.November 8, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/article/new-delhi-must-capitalize-aseans-eagerness-engage.43 “Why Did India Opt out of RCEP, One of the World’s Largest Free Trade Agreements? - Massive Free Trade Agreement.” November 26, 2020. The Economic Times. Accessed November 3, 2021. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/why-did-india-opt-out-of-rcep-one-of-the-worlds-largest-free-trade-agreements/massive-free-trade-agreement/slideshow/79246185.cms.‌44 Nguyen AnhChuong, Tran Xuan Hiep, Nguyen Tuan Binh, Nguyen Hoang Hue, and Nguyen Thi Phuong Thao. “Competitive Strategy of India and China in Southeast Asia and Its Impact on the Region.” Croatian International Relations Review 28, no. 89 (2022): 225–45. https://cirrj.org/index.php/cirrj/article/view/511/430.‌45 Agil Mammadov, and Ziyadhan Hasanov, “NEO-Liberalizm Theory in International Relations.” International Journal of Humanities & Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) a Peer-Reviewed Bi-Monthly Bi-Lingual Research Journal. (2016) https://oaji.net/articles/2016/1115–1,464,939,544pdf.46 Christina L. Davis, “Linkage Diplomacy: Economic and Security Bargaining in the Anglo-Japanese Alliance,” International Security33, no.3 (2009):143–145. doi:10.1162/isec.2009.33.3.143.47 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan,“Japan and India Vision 2025 Special Strategic and Global Partnership,” 2015. https://www.mofa.go.jp/s_sa/sw/in/page3e_000432.html [Accessed September 03, 2021].48 MonikaChansoria, “India & Japan Makes Strategic Partnership to Explore Deep-Sea Mining,” Mail Online, November 12, 2015. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-3316143/Rare-earth-diplomacy-India-Japan-makes-strategic-partnership-explore-stakes-deep-sea-mining.html [Accessed September 03, 2021].49 Hidetaka Yoshimatsu, “The Indo-Pacific in Japan’s Strategy toward India,” Contemprary Politics 25, no. 4 (2019): 10–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2018.155676950 James Clark, “Jakarta-Bandung High-Speed Railway,” Future Southeast Asia, March 23, 2021. https://futuresoutheastasia.com/java-high-speed-railway/ [Accessed September 05, 2021].51 HidetakaYoshimatsu, “Partnership against the Rising Dragon? Japan’s Foreign Policy toward India.” The Pacific Review 33, no. 3–4 (2019): 608–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2018.1563210.52 Suhasini Haidar, “Japan Pitches for Chabahar Port,” The Hindu, May 7, 2017. https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/japan-pitches-for-chabahar-port/article18405900.ece. [Accessed September 05, 2021]53 Srikanth Kondapalli,“Why India Is Not Part of the Belt and Road Initiative Summit,” The Indian Express, May 15, 2017. https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/why-india-is-not-part-of-the-belt-and-road-initiative-summit-4656150/. [Accessed September 05, 2021].54 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Government of Japan, “Japan-India Joint Statement toward a Free, Open and Prosperous Indo-Pacific,” 2015 https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/100002878.pdf. [Accessed September 05, 2021]55 Chien-pengChung, “What Are the Strategic and Economic Implications for South Asia of China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative?,” The Pacific Review 31, no. 3 (2017): 315–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2017.1375000.56 David Brewster, “Silk Roads and Strings of Pearls: The Strategic Geography of China’s New Pathways in the Indian Ocean.” Geopolitics 22, no. 2 (2016): 269–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2016.1223631.57 Japan International Cooperation Agency, “JICA Extends ODA Loan of INR 980 Crore for the North East Road Network Connectivity Improvement Project (Phase 4),” 2020. https://www.jica.go.jp/india/english/office/topics/press200327_08.html [Accessed June 13, 2021].58 Utpal Bhaskar, “India, Japan Join Hands for Big Infrastructure Push in Northeast,” Mint. August 2, 2017. https://www.livemint.com/Politics/8T9Q9wBg1s4JKRwFgChMDO/India-Japan-join-hands-for-big-infra-push-in-Northeast-Indi.html [Accessed September 14, 2021].59 Jagannath Panda, “The Asia-Africa Growth Corridor: An India-Japan Arch in the Making?” (Institute for Security & Development Policy, Sweden, 2017). https://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/08/2017-focus-asia-jagannath-panda.pdf.60 David Thomas, “Asia-Africa Report: Abe and Modi Eye African Cooperation,” African Business, August 21, 2017. https://african.business/2017/08/technology-information/asia-africa-report-abe-modi-eye-african-cooperation/ [Accessed September 21. 2021].61 Rahul Mishra, “India’s Act East Engagement: From Southeast Asia to the Indo-Pacific, https://issuu.com/antalljozseftudaskozpont/docs/in_focus_2020_02_asean_web/s/1137713762 Ishita Dave, “India’s Strategic Access to Chabahar.” South Asian Voices. August 21, 2015. https://southasianvoices.org/indias-strategic-access-to-chabahar/[Accessed September 22, 2021].63 David Brewster, “India’s Strategic Partnership with Vietnam: The Search for a Diamond on the South China Sea?,” Asian Security 5, no. 1 (2009): 24–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799850802611297.64 Ijaz Khalid, Shaukat, and Azka Gul, “Indian Response to Chinese String of Pearls Doctrine,” 31–33.65 FrancineFrankel, “The Breakout of China-India Strategic Rivalry in Asia and the Indian Ocean.” Journal of International Affairs 64, no. 2 (2011): 1–4. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24385531.66 Abhijit Singh, “India’s ‘Undersea Wall’ in the Eastern Indian Ocean,” Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative. June 15, 2016. https://amti.csis.org/indias-undersea-wall-eastern-indian-ocean/ [September 22, 2021].67 Alejandro Puigrefagut, “China and India Fight for The Gates of the Strait of Malacca,” Global Affairs Strategic Studies – Universidad de Navarra.” www.unav.edu. https://www.unav.edu/web/global-affairs/detalle/-/blogs/china-and-india-fight-for-the-gates-of-the-strait-of-malacca [Accessed September 23, 2021].68 Sohil Sinha, “India, Japan, and the US Lay down Underwater Snares for Chinese Submarines,” TFI Global. January 4, 2021. https://tfiglobalnews.com/2021/01/04/india-japan-and-the-us-lay-down-underwater-snares-for-chinese-submarines/ [Accessed September 23, 2021]69 Thomas F. Lynch III, and James J. Przystup, “India-Japan Strategic Cooperation and Implications for U.S. Strategy in the Indo-Asia-Pacific Region,” ;(Center for Strategic Research Institute for National Strategic Studies, Washington, 2014). 20. https://css.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/gess/cis/center-for-securities-studies/resources/docs/INSS_US-Strategic-Perspetives-24.pdf [Accessed September 26, 2021].70 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, “Japan and India Vision 2025 Special Strategic and Global Partnership,” 2015. https://www.mofa.go.jp/s_sa/sw/in/page3e_000432.html [Accessed September 26, 2021].71 Ministry of External Affairs Government of India, “The Entry into Force of India-Japan Agreement for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy,” July 20, 2021. https://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/28678/The_entry_into_force_of_IndiaJapan_Agreement_for_Cooperation_in_the_Pea [September 27, 2021].72 Jayanth Jacob, “Doklam Standoff: Japan Signals Support to India over Border Row with China,” Hindustan Times, August 18, 2017. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/doklam-standoff-japan-says-no-country-should-use-force-to-change-region-status/story-CsLvkSgIAp4htM6qGtsx3L.html [Accessed September 28, 2021].73 Satoru Nagao, “Maritime Security and Multilateral Cooperation: A Japanese Perspective,” Maritime Affairs: Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India 11, no. 2 (2015): 20–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/09733159.2015.1112055.74 Thomas F. Lynch III, and James J. Przystup, “India-Japan Strategic Cooperation and Implications for U.S. Strategy in the Indo-Asia-Pacific Region,” 17.75 “India, Japan Hold Anti-Submarine Warfare Exercise,” The Indian Express, October 29, 2017. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-japan-hold-anti-submarine-warfare-exercise-4912552/ [Accessed September 29, 2021].76 “India, Japan to Step up Defence Cooperation,” The Economic Times, 2018 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/india-japan-to-step-up-defence-cooperation/articleshow/60392541.cms?from=mdr [Accessed October 1, 2021].77 Rupakjyoti Borah, “Japan – India Relations in the Post-Cold War Era.” In The Strategic Relations between India, the United States and Japan in the Indo-Pacific When Three Is Not a Crowd, (World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore, 2021), 8–9.78 Viraj Solanki and Mariko Togashi, “India and Japan Enhance Cooperation despite Their Differences,” https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2022/05/india-and-japan-enhance-cooperation-despite-their-differences [Accessed May 27, 2022].79 Gisela Grieger, “Towards a Joint Western Alternative to the Belt and Road Initiative?,” ;(EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service, December, 2021). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/698824/EPRS_BRI2021698824_EN.pdf