Recent progress in synthesis of lanthanide-based persistent luminescence nanoparticles

Persistent luminescence nanoparticles (PLNPs) are a kind of phosphors that can remain luminescent for seconds to several days after the stoppage of excitation. Lanthanides show the special capability to largely broaden the emission range and enhance the luminescence intensity of PLNPs due to their dense energy structure and unique electronic configurations. In the past decades, various methods have been developed for the synthesis of lanthanide-based PLNPs with excellent persistent luminescence properties, and the lanthanide-based PLNPs are widely studied in areas including biomedicine, energy, and information storage. In this review, we summarized the research progress in the synthesis of lanthanide-based PLNPs and outlined several typical synthesis methods. We discussed the fundamental concepts of preparation methods as well as the advantages and drawbacks of the typical synthetic approaches. Moreover, the current challenges and the potential solutions for the development of lanthanide-based PLNPs are also discussed in an attempt to provide strategies to further improve the optical properties of lanthanide-based PLNPs. We hope this review can contribute to the design of lanthanide-based PLNPs with desired properties and further promote their applications in biomedicine, energy, and information science.