Test anxiety effects, predictors, and correlates: A 30-year meta-analytic review

Since the 1988 publication of Hembree's seminal meta-analysis on test anxiety, much has changed in the theoretical conceptualization of test anxiety, as well as the influences on test performance. The present study examined the influence of test anxiety on a variety of educational outcomes, in addition to demographic and intrapersonal correlates. Results of 238 studies from 1988 to the present, were synthesized via a meta-analytic framework to explicate predictors, correlates, and relationships with the test anxiety construct. Pooled effect sizes were calculated. Results indicated that test anxiety was significantly and negatively related to a wide range of educational performance outcomes, including standardized tests, university entrance exams, and grade point average. Results were most pronounced at the middle grades level. Self-esteem was a significant and strong predictor of test anxiety. Perceived difficulty of the test and the high-stakes nature or consequences of the test was also related to higher test anxiety. The magnitude of the relationship of test anxiety across a number of variables was in the small to moderate range. Implications for researchers and educators are discussed including the use of evidence-based assessment and interventions when warranted.