Water temperature and energy balance of floating photovoltaic construction water area—field study and modelling

Floating photovoltaics (FPV) are an emerging renewable energy technology. Although they have received extensive attention in recent years, understanding of their environmental impacts is limited. To address this knowledge gap, we measured water temperature and meteorological parameters for six months under FPV arrays and in the control open water site and constructed a numerical model reflecting the water energy balance. Our results showed that FPV arrays caused diurnal variation in water temperature and microclimate. Specifically, we found that FPV had a cooling effect on their host waterbody during the daytime and a heat preservation effect at night, reducing diurnal variation. The diel oscillation of water temperature below FPV panels lagged behind that of open waters by approximately two hours. The microclimate conditions below FPV panels also changed, with wind speed decreasing by 70%, air temperature increasing during the daytime (averaging +2.01°C) and decreasing at night (averaging -1.27°C). Notably, the trend in relative humidity was the opposite (-3.72%, +14.43%). Correlation analysis showed that the degree of water temperature affected by FPV was related to local climate conditions. The numerical model could capture the energy balance characteristics with a correlation coefficient of 0.80 between the simulated and actual data. The shortwave radiation and latent heat flux below FPV panels was significantly reduced, and the longwave radiation emitted by FPV panels became one of the heat sources during the daytime. The combined variations of these factors dominated the water energy balance below FPV panels. The measured data and simulation results serve as a foundation for evaluating the impact of FPV systems on water temperature, energy budget, and aquatic environment, which would also provide a more comprehensive understanding of FPV systems.