Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates in Japan

Abstract This study examines determinants of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment related to non-work- (interaction and general living adjustment) and work- (work adjustment and job satisfaction) aspects in Japan. It was hypothesized that cultural distance and expatriate gender, language proficiency, type (organizational or self-initiated expatriates), and stable personality traits (social initiative, emotional stability, cultural empathy, flexibility, and open-mindedness) have an influence on both non-work- and work-related adjustment. Hierarchical regression analyses, performed on data from 110 expatriates, indicate that expatriate language proficiency, type, and the personality traits of emotional stability and cultural empathy have a positive influence on both types of adjustment. Implications of these findings for practice are discussed. Keywords: cross-cultural adjustmentJapanjob satisfactionmulticultural personality questionnaireorganizational expatriatesself-initiated expatriates Acknowledgement I would like to thank the people who helped me collect the data and participated in this study, and Vesa Suutari for his helpful comments on an earlier draft, presented at the Fifth Asia Academy of Management Conference in Tokyo, Japan, in 2006. Notes 1. There were 1.8 million registered foreigners in Japan in 2001. If the more than 223,000 foreigners overstaying their visas are included, the total number exceeds 2 million (Nyukan Kyokai 2002 Nyukaa Kyokai (Association of Immigration Bureau) (2002), Kokusai Jinryu (The Immigration Newsmagazine), Tokyo [Google Scholar]) or approximately 1.6% of the population. Compared with other advanced countries, where the share of foreign labour force often exceeds 10%, the ratio of foreigners living and working in Japan is low.