Refined Sea Salt Markers for Coastal Cities Facilitating Quantification of Aerosol Aging and PM2.5 Apportionment

Sea salt (ss) aerosols in PM2.5 are often quantified through source apportionment by applying sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl–) as the markers, but both markers can be substantially emitted from anthropogenic sources. In this study, we differentiate ss from nonss (nss) portions of Na+ and Cl– to better apportion PM2.5 in a coastal tropical urban environment. Size-resolved ionic profiles accounting for Cl– depletion of aged ss were applied to 162-day measurements during 2012 and 2018–2019. Results show that the nss (likely anthropogenic) portions, on average, account for 50–80% of total Na+ and Cl– in submicron aerosols (PM1). This corresponds to up to 2.5 μg/m3 of ss in submicron aerosols that can be ∼10 times overestimated if one attributes all Na+ and Cl– in PM1 to ss. Employing the newly speciated ss- and nss-portions of Na+ and Cl– to source apportionment of urban PM2.5 via positive matrix factorization uncovers a new source of transported anthropogenic emissions during the southwest monsoon, contributing to 12–15% of PM2.5. This increases anthropogenic PM2.5 by ≥19% and reduces ss-related PM2.5 by >30%. In addition to demonstrating Cl– depletion (aging) in submicron aerosols and quantifying ssNa+, nssNa+, ssCl–, as well as nssCl– therein, the refined PM2.5 apportionment resolves new insights on PM2.5 of anthropogenic origins in urban environments, useful to facilitate policy making.