Pharmacodynamic Drug–Drug Interactions

Pharmacodynamic drug–drug interactions ( DDI s) occur when the pharmacological effect of one drug is altered by that of another drug in a combination regimen. DDI s often are classified as synergistic, additive, or antagonistic in nature, albeit these terms are frequently misused. Within a complex pathophysiological system, the mechanism of interaction may occur at the same target or through alternate pathways. Quantitative evaluation of pharmacodynamic DDI s by employing modeling and simulation approaches is needed to identify and optimize safe and effective combination therapy regimens. This review investigates the opportunities and challenges in pharmacodynamic DDI studies and highlights examples of quantitative methods for evaluating pharmacodynamic DDI s, with a particular emphasis on the use of mechanism‐based modeling and simulation in DDI studies. Advancements in both experimental and computational techniques will enable the application of better, model‐informed assessments of pharmacodynamic DDI s in drug discovery, development, and therapeutics.