From “organs on a chip” to “patient on a chip”

The increasing cost of drug safety is attributed to the inappropriate pre-clinical models with unrepresentative pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles that blur drug efficacy and toxicity. Moreover, the commercial drugs designed by impromper disease models could cause potential multi-organ side effects. Even worse, in some cases, unqualified drug screening is the cause of unexpected hospitalization in clinical. These urgent yet unsolved issues push scholars to reform monolayer cell culture and traditional animal models for drug validation.