Rational Design Principles for the Transport and Subcellular Distribution of Nanomaterials into Plant Protoplasts

The ability to control the subcellular localization of nanoparticles within living plants offers unique advantages for targeted biomolecule delivery and enables important applications in plant bioengineering. However, the mechanism of nanoparticle transport past plant biological membranes is poorly understood. Here, a mechanistic study of nanoparticle cellular uptake into plant protoplasts is presented. An experimentally validated mathematical model of lipid exchange envelope penetration mechanism for protoplasts, which predicts that the subcellular distribution of nanoparticles in plant cells is dictated by the particle size and the magnitude of the zeta potential, is advanced. The mechanism is completely generic, describing nanoparticles ranging from quantum dots, gold and silica nanoparticles, nanoceria, and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). In addition, the use of imaging flow cytometry to investigate the influence of protoplasts' morphological characteristics on nanoparticle uptake efficiency is demonstrated. Using DNA-wrapped SWNTs as model nanoparticles, it is found that glycerolipids, the predominant lipids in chloroplast membranes, exhibit stronger lipid-nanoparticle interaction than phospholipids, the major constituent in protoplast membrane. This work can guide the rational design of nanoparticles for targeted delivery into specific compartments within plant cells without the use of chemical or mechanical aid, potentially enabling various plant engineering applications.