Evaluation of comprehensive benefits of sponge cities using meta-analysis in different geographical environments in China

With the rapid progress in urbanization, frequent urban waterlogging and non-point source pollution are threatening the living and health of human beings. Sponge city construction has become an effective means to curb urban waterlogging. Although related studies have explored the comprehensive benefits of sponge cities, few studies have been conducted on the effects of different geographical environments on runoff control and suspended solid (SS) removal. Based on 76 cities with sponge cities in China, this study used the meta-analysis method to evaluate the relationships of climate, terrain, underlying surface conditions, and construction area with the increase in the total annual runoff control rate and SS removal rate. The results reveal that the runoff control benefit can be significantly improved by sponge cities under the combined conditions of average annual precipitation of approximately 1000 mm, high fractional vegetation cover, sufficient soil fertility, a terrain slope i of ≤2%, and a permeability coefficient of strata of 100-200 m/d, especially in northern China, where the weight representing the quantity of comprehensive benefits was calculated to be 25.5%. In addition, the study results assist in reforming unfavorable geographical environments in the construction of sponge city, thus providing more effective solutions for tackling SS pollution. The most significant benefits of SS removal were obtained in north central China, where the weight was 21.4%. This study comprehensively investigated the effects of geographical environmental factors on the comprehensive benefits of sponge city reflected by the improvement in the total annual runoff control rate and the SS removal rate. The results will provide guidance for the planning and design of global sponge cities and effectively optimize the practice, scale, and location of existing construction based on specific geographical environments.