Carbon Dioxide

This article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 2. Physical Properties 3. Chemical Properties 4. Occurrence in Nature 4.1. Lithosphere 4.2. Atmosphere 4.3. Hydrosphere 4.4. Biosphere 4.4.1. Life Cycle 4.4.2. Radiocarbon Dating 5. Environmental Effects 6. Production 6.1. Carbon Dioxide from Ammonia and Hydrogen Plants (Process Gas CO2) 6.1.1. Potassium Carbonate Process 6.1.2. Ethanolamine Process 6.2. Carbon Dioxide from Flue Gases 6.3. Carbon Dioxide from Fermentation 6.4. Carbon Dioxide from Carbonates 6.5. Carbon Dioxide from Natural Sources 7. Purification of Carbon Dioxide before Liquefaction 8. Liquefaction of Carbon Dioxide 9. Production of Dry Ice 10. Quality Specifications and Analysis 11. Commercial Forms, Storage, and Distribution 11.1. Solid Carbon Dioxide 11.2. Liquid Carbon Dioxide 12. Uses 12.1. Uses of Gaseous Carbon Dioxide 12.2. Uses of Solid Carbon Dioxide 12.3. Uses of Liquid Carbon Dioxide 12.3.1. Use as an Inert Environment 12.3.2. Promoting the Growth of Plants 12.3.3. Heat Transfer Medium in Nuclear Power Stations 12.3.4. Refrigerant 12.3.5. Uses Based on the Solubility of Carbon Dioxide 12.3.6. Chemical Uses 12.3.7. Other Uses 12.4. Carbon Dioxide as Chemical Feedstock 12.4.1. Urea 12.4.2. Methanol 12.4.3. Methane 12.4.4. Salicylic Acid 12.4.5. Cyclic Carbonates 12.4.6. Acyclic Carbonates 12.4.7. Organic Acids 12.4.8. Carbamates 12.4.9. Alcohols and Aldehydes 12.4.10. Polymers from Carbon Dioxide 12.4.10.1. Polymers by Direct Conversion of Carbon Dioxide 12.4.10.2. Polymers and Polycondensates from Carbon Dioxide-Derived Components 12.4.11. Carbon Dioxide Mineralization 12.5. Future of Carbon Dioxide Utilization 13. Carbon Dioxide Capture 13.1. Considerations for Carbon Dioxide Capture 13.1.1. Carbon Dioxde Avoidance Costs 13.1.2. Carbon Capture-related Energy Demand 13.1.3. Carbon Dioxide Purity, Pressure, and Separation Degree 13.2. Carbon Dioxide Capture Routes 13.3. CCS-related Separation Technologies 13.3.1. Chemical Absorption 13.3.1.1. Chemical Absorbent Agents 13.3.1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Chemical Absorption 13.3.1.3. Impact of Process Design Parameters on the Thermal Energy Consumption 13.3.2. Physical Absorption 13.3.2.1. Process Description 13.3.2.2. Commercially Available Solvents 13.3.3. Cryogenic Air Separation 13.3.4. Adsorption 13.3.4.1. Inorganic Adsorbents 13.3.4.2. Organic and Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Adsorbents 13.3.4.3. Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) 13.3.5. Chemical Looping Combustion and Gasification 13.3.6. Carbonate Looping 13.3.7. Gas Separation Membranes 13.4. Summary 14. Economic Aspects 15. Safety Precautions