Vertical transport and retention behavior of polystyrene nanoplastics in simulated hyporheic zone

The ecological risk of microplastics (MPs) usually depends on their environmental behavior, however, few studies focused on the impact of hydrodynamic perturbations on the fate of MPs in hyporheic zone. This study chose quartz sand (250-425 μm) as simulated porous medium to investigate the transport of 100 nm polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) under hydrodynamic factors, including flow rates (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mL/min), flow orientations (up-flow, down-flow, and horizontal-flow), and water saturations (50%, 80%, and 100%), as well as different salinities and temperatures. The breakthrough curves (BTCs) and retained profiles (RPs) of PSNPs were compared and analyzed by Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory. Due to the small size and moderate density of PSNPs, as well as high flow rates, the flow orientation exhibited little effect on the PSNP transport. However, high flow rate, low salinity, high water saturation, and low temperature would facilitate the mobility of PSNPs. The increase in salinity from zero to 35 PSU (practical salinity units) caused the compression of electrical double layer and weakened the electrostatic repulsion between PSNPs and sands, which dramatically decreased the penetration rate from 100% to zero. Especially, the lower energy barrier of PSNPs-PSNPs at 3.5 and 35 PSU (16.45 kBT and zero, respectively) facilitated the adsorption of PSNPs on sand via ripening mechanism. Due to the strong adsorption of PSNPs by sand at high salinity, the effect of flow rate on PSNP transport was more pronounced at low salinity. The mobility of PSNPs at 0.035 PSU was enhanced by 41.4%-75.3% as the flow rate increased from 0.5 to 2.0 mL/min, which was contributed from the reversible deposition in lower secondary energy minimum depth at low salinity and the stronger hydrodynamic drag force generated by the high flow rate. However, the sufficient molecular diffusion at low flow rate promoted the occupation of PSNPs on adsorption sites. In addition, the penetration rate of PSNPs decreased by 25.0% as the water saturation decreased from 100% to 50%, indicating that the film straining at the air-water interface would hinder the transport of PSNPs. Finally, temperature increase impeded the penetration of PSNPs by 6.26%-23.1% via blocking mechanism. Our results suggest that low-salinity, high-flow river systems may be at greater risk of MPs contamination due to enhanced vertical transport capability.