Exploring renewable energy trade coopetition relationships: Evidence from belt and road countries, 1996-2018

Energy trade has been a hot topic in countries participating in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), while cooperation and competition are two elementary modes of international trade. This study examines the coopetition relations in terms of renewable energy trade among BRI countries by constructing a two-layer network model for 1996–2018. We examined 65 BRI countries and indicated that the interplay between intrinsic and network dynamics features either cooperation or competition. First, the evolutionary patterns between cooperation network and competition network are different but with a declining gap. Besides, the BRI policy promotes cooperation more effectively than competition. Second, competitiveness and cooperativeness are heterogeneously distributed across countries and influential cooperators are not necessarily top competitors. Notably, BRI has reinforced China's competitive position. Third, the intralayer and interlayer network dissimilarity are integrated to provide insights that numerous countries play dual roles of competitor and collaborator, while cooperation-oriented competition is more conducive. Finally, policy recommendations are proposed so that sustainable renewable energy supply can be attained.