X-Ray Metrology in Semiconductor Manufacturing

THE APPLICATIONS Introduction Scope of X-Ray Metrology (XRM) Specular X-Ray Reflectivity (XRR) Diffuse Scatter X-Ray Diffraction High-Resolution X-Ray Diffraction Diffraction Imaging and Defect Mapping X-Ray Fluorescence Summary Thickness Metrology Introduction Dielectrics and Metals Multiple Layers Epitaxial Layers Summary Composition and Phase Metrology Introduction Amorphous Films Polycrystalline Films Wafers and Epitaxial Films Summary References Strain and Stress Metrology Introduction Strain and Stress in Polycrystalline Layers Relaxation of Epitaxial Layers Thin Strained Silicon Layers Whole Wafer Defect Metrology Summary References Mosaic Metrology Grain Size Measurement Mosaic Structure in Substrate Wafers Mosaic Structure in Epilayers Summary References Interface Roughness Metrology Interface Width and Roughness Distinction of Roughness and Grading Roughness Determination in Semiconductors Roughness Determination in Metallic Films Roughness Determination in Dielectrics Summary References Porosity Metrology Determination of Porosity Determination of Pore Size and Distribution Pores in Single Crystals Summary References THE SCIENCE Specular X-Ray Reflectivity Principles Specular Reflectivity from a Single Ideal Interface Specular Reflectivity from a Single Graded or Rough Interface Specular Reflectivity from a Single Thin Film on a Substrate Specular Reflectivity from Multiple Layers on a Substrate Summary References X-Ray Diffuse Scattering Origin of Diffuse Scatter from Surfaces and Interfaces The Born Approximation The Distorted-Wave Born Approximation Effect of Interface Parameters on Diffuse Scatter Multiple-Layer Structures Diffuse Scatter Represented in Reciprocal Space Summary References Theory of XRD on Polycrystals Introduction Kinematical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction Determination of Strain Determination of Grain Size Texture Reciprocal Space Geometry Summary References High-Resolution XRD on Single Crystals Introduction Dynamical Theory of X-Ray Diffraction The Determination of Epilayer Parameters High-Resolution Diffraction in Real and Reciprocal Space Summary References Diffraction Imaging and Defect Mapping Introduction Contrast in X-Ray Diffraction Imaging (XRDI) Spatial Resolution in XRDI X-Ray Defect Imaging Methods Example Applications Summary References THE TECHNOLOGY Modeling and Analysis What Has Been Measured? Direct Methods Data-Fitting Methods The Differential Evolution Method Requirements for Automated Analysis Summary References Instrumentation Introduction X-Ray Sources X-Ray Optics Mechanical Technology Detectors Practical Realizations Summary References Accuracy and Precision of X-Ray Metrology Introduction Design of X-Ray Metrology Repeatability and Reproducibility Accuracy and Trueness Repeatability and Throughput Absolute Tool Matching Specimen-Induced Limitations Summary References INDEX