Hotspots of land-use change in global biodiversity hotspots

• Negative and positive effects on habitat were observed in 30 and 6 biodiversity hotspots, respectively. • Agricultural land occupation and urban encroachment contributed to approximately 90% and 10% of the habitat loss, respectively. • In consideration of both habitat fragmentation and habitat loss, the human land-use disturbance to nature is worse. • Developed countries have not performed better at conserving biodiversity hotspots than developing countries. Land-use conversion from natural areas to agriculture and human settlements is causing global biodiversity loss. We proposed a human land-use disturbance index (LDI) to assess habitat loss and fragmentation in global biodiversity hotspots from 1992 to 2015. Negative (LDI > 1) and positive (LDI < 1) impacts on habitat were observed in 30 and 6 biodiversity hotspots, respectively. The hotspots with a relatively small proportional area of nature-dominated land were more likely to face habitat loss. The area of nature-dominated land in the global biodiversity hotspots decreased by 287.37 × 10 3 km 2 , which was 1.56% of the level in 1992. Agricultural land occupation and urban encroachment contributed to approximately 90% and 10% of the habitat loss in global biodiversity hotspots, respectively. Habitat loss caused by agricultural land occupation was notable in the hotspots (Sundaland, Indo-Burma and Cerrado) within the developing nations, whereas urban expansion threats to biodiversity were more evident in the hotspots (North American Coastal Plain and Forests of East Australia) within the developed nations. Together with the human development index (HDI) results, we found that low land-use disturbance did not occur as expected in developed areas. The 6 biodiversity hotspots with positive effects were all located in the developing nations. The results indicated that human development did not necessarily result in negative effects on habitats; however, human development goals oriented by the HDI without environmental and ecological dimensions would not be beneficial to biodiversity conservation. These findings shed new light on the impacts of land-use change on global biodiversity hotspots and provide valuable information for global land-use monitoring and biodiversity risk assessments.