Response Effects in Surveys

Since the early 1940s, survey interviews have become the dominant method of data collection in empirical social research (Phillips, 1971; Kaase, Ott, & Scheuch, 1983). Despite the popularity of the survey interview, the processes underlying the responses to survey questions are not well understood, and a "theory of asking questions" (Hyman, 1954) has never been developed. Thus, survey methodology today is characterised by rigorous knowledge about sampling procedures on the one hand, and a surprising lack of knowledge about the "art" (sicl) of asking questions (e.g., Noelle-Neumann, 1963) on the other hand. Unfortunately, however, empirical research (e.g., Sudman & Bradburn, 1974) suggests that nonsampling error provides considerable limitations to the usefulness of survey data.