Fibromodulin facilitates the osteogenic effect of Masquelet's induced membrane by inhibiting the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway

Schematic illustration of the mechanism by which an IM promotes bone formation. FMOD secreted by the IM promotes osteogenesis of BMSCs and angiogenesis of HUVECs by inhibiting the TGF-β/SMAD signaling pathway, thus facilitating bone formation.