Strategy to develop and validate digital droplet PCR methods for global antimicrobial resistance wastewater surveillance

Abstract According to World Health Organization (WHO), antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is currently one of the world's top 10 health threats, causing infections to become difficult or impossible to treat, increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, disability, and death. Accurate surveillance is a key component in the fight against AMR. Wastewater is progressively becoming a new player in AMR surveillance, with the promise of a cost‐effective real‐time tracking of global AMR profiles in specific regions. One of the most useful analytical methods for wastewater surveillance is currently based on real‐time PCR (qPCR) and digital droplet PCR (ddPCR) technologies. As stated in the EU Wastewater Treatment Directive proposal, methodological standardization, including a workflow for method development and validation, will play a crucial role in global monitoring of AMR in wastewater. However, according to our knowledge, there are currently no qPCR and ddPCR methods for AMR surveillance available that have been validated according to international standard performance criteria. Therefore, this study proposes a workflow for the development and validation of PCR‐based methods for a harmonized and global AMR surveillance, including the construction of specific sequence databases and microbial collections for an efficient method development and method specificity evaluation. Following this strategy, we have developed and validated four duplex ddPCR methods responding to international standard performance criteria, focusing on seven AMR genes (ARG's), including extended spectrum beta‐lactam ( bla CTX‐M ), carbapenem ( bla KPC‐2/3 ), tetracycline ( tet(M )), erythromycin ( erm(B) ), vancomycin ( vanA ), sulfonamide ( sul2 ), and aminoglycoside ( aac(3)‐IV ), as well as one indicator of antibiotic (multi‐) resistance and horizontal gene transfer, named the class I integron ( intl1 ). The performance of these ddPCR methods was successfully assessed for their specificity, as no false‐positive and false‐negative results were observed. These ddPCR methods were also considered to be highly sensitive as showing a limit of detection below 25 copies of the targets. In addition, their applicability was confirmed using 14 wastewater samples collected from two Belgian water resource recovery facilities. The proposed study represents therefore a step forward to reinforce method harmonization in the context of the global AMR surveillance in wastewater. Practitioner Points In the context of wastewater surveillance, no PCR‐based methods for global AMR monitoring are currently validated according to international standards. Consequently, we propose a workflow to develop and validate PCR‐based methods for a harmonized and global AMR surveillance. This workflow resulted here in four duplex ddPCR methods targeting seven ARGs and one general indicator for mobilizable resistance genes. The applicability of these validated ddPCR methods was confirmed on 14 wastewater samples from two Belgian water resource recovery facilities.