Lithium-ion battery state of health estimation using a hybrid model based on a convolutional neural network and bidirectional gated recurrent unit

This paper proposes a real-time state of health (SOH) estimation model based on a deep learning (DL) framework. The proposed model is a combination of two different architectures; a one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) and a bidirectional gated recurrent unit (BiGRU). The hybrid CNN-BiGRU uses the 1D CNN layers to extract pertinent features from input data and then relies on the BiGRU layers for sequence learning in both directions. To account for all SOH indicators, the proposed approach uses the current, voltage, and temperature measurements, which are readily obtainable from the electric vehicle's battery management system (BMS). This prevents the complex and time-consuming feature extraction used in most related papers. Since the hyperparameters have a significant impact on the performance of neural network models, a Bayesian Optimization (BO) technique based on the Gaussian Process (GP) was considered to tune the CNN-BiGRU model hyperparameters. Accordingly, the objective function was able to converge to a low Mean Squared Error (MSE) of 1.2×10−5 in just 19 iterations. Afterward, to verify the accuracy of the optimized model, a Lithium-ion battery dataset with several discharge profiles provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was used. The obtained results demonstrated the accuracy and robustness of the proposed method compared to other commonly used models. The CNN-BiGRU model yielded a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 2.080% and a root-mean-square error (RMSE) of 2.516% in the case of the battery set #C, referring to a set with 70 cycles already used at 24 °C. Additionally, the End of life (EOL) indicator error of zero cycles for the same data.