Detail mineralogical study and geochronological framework of Bayan Obo (China) Nb mineralization recorded by in situ U-Pb dating of columbite

The Bayan Obo deposit is world-famous for its giant rare earth reserves, and also accompanied with 2.2 Mt Nb2O5 resources at an average grade of 0.13 %, renowned as the second largest Nb deposit globally. Previous studies have focused on the origin of carbonatite (igneous/sedimentary), and variation composition during evolution, as well as its super-enrichment of light rare earth elements (LREE), while the metallogenic mechanism of niobium is being overlooked despite the identification of plenty Nb-bearing minerals. In this study, we identify four types of columbite as major Nb-bearing minerals, instead of pyrochlore in the west pit of Bayan Obo. Detailed mineralogical study has revealed large primitive columbite (Clb1-I, 100–200 μm) is hosted in the coarse-grained Fe-dolomite carbonatite (FeO = 5.46–10.47 wt%), being an ideal target for future mineral beneficiation. Those columbites (Clb1-I) are featured by lowest Sr, Y, and ∑REE but enriched in iron in composition, revealing its magmatic origin. Sieve-textured columbite (Clb1-II, ∼100 μm) dispersed in the fluorination and chloritization dolomite carbonatite, with a U–Pb age of 1359 ± 31 Ma, contemporary with ages of the regional carbonatite magma intrusion and rift-related magmatism, indicating niobium being sourced from mantle-derived carbonatite. The occurrence of fluorite as inclusions in Clb1-I indicates the solubility of Nb was enhanced by fluxes, and the columbite saturation was easily achieved during the carbonatite magma evolution into ferroan carbonatite. Strong fenitization metasomatism further locally concentrated columbite either within the mineral assemblages of pyrite + phlogopite + allanite (Clb2) or in the mica-dominated fenite (Clb3), and crystallized at 346 ± 18 Ma and 284 ± 16 Ma, respectively. The latter metalogenetic epoch is accordant with late Permian granitic magmatism event (ca. 280 Ma) while the former age may attribute to its occurrences related to the early Paleozoic arc-continent collision. Differ from pristine columbite (Clb1-I and Clb1-II), the metamorphic columbite (Clb2 and Cl3, especially Clb3) are enriched in Ta (1803–4092 ppm), Y (560–2029 ppm) and ∑REE (720–6317 ppm) content, probably suggesting the highest degree of evolution. The similar metallogenesis framework between Nb and REE, combined with the coexistence of columbite and REE minerals assemblages, implies the spatial and temporal coupling of Nb and REE mineralization. This first innovative and systematic mineralogical and geochronological work directly constrains the nature of Mesoproterozoic mantle-derived carbonatite with fertile Fe and fluxes, and the Paleozoic and Permian fenitization metasomatism, are the major factors contribute to the metallogenic specialization of niobium in Bayan Obo.