Long-Term Maintenance of Projection of Nipples Reconstructed Using Three-Dimensionally Printed Poly-4-Hydroxybutyrate Bioabsorbable Scaffolds

For patients who are unable to undergo nipple-sparing mastectomy, reconstruction of the nipple-areola complex has been shown to promote greater satisfaction in cosmetic outcome, body image, and sexual relationships. Although a variety of techniques have been developed to optimize the shape, size, and mechanical properties of the reconstructed nipple-areola complex, maintenance of sustained nipple projection over time remains a challenge for plastic surgeons.Three-dimensionally printed poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) scaffolds were designed and fabricated filled with either mechanically minced or zested patient-derived costal cartilage, designed with an internal P4HB lattice (rebar) to provide interior structure to foster tissue ingrowth, or left unfilled. All scaffolds were wrapped within a C-V flap on the dorsa of a nude rat.One year after implantation, neonipple projection and diameter were well preserved in all scaffolded groups compared with nonscaffolded neonipples ( P < 0.05). Histologic analysis showed significant vascularized connective tissue ingrowth at 12 months in both empty and rebar-scaffolded neonipples and fibrovascular cartilaginous tissue formation in mechanically processed costal cartilage-filled neonipples. The internal lattice promoted more rapid tissue infiltration and scaffold degradation and best mimicked the elastic modulus of the native human nipple after 1 year in vivo. No scaffolds extruded or caused any mechanical complications.Three-dimensionally printed biodegradable P4HB scaffolds maintain diameter and projection while approximating the histologic appearance and mechanical properties of native human nipples after 1 year with a minimal complication profile. These long-term preclinical data suggest that P4HB scaffolds may be readily translated for clinical application.The authors' unique, three-dimensionally printed P4HB scaffolds can be used to create custom nipple scaffolds that contour to any nipple shape and size, enabling the fabrication of tissue-engineered neonipples with significantly greater projection maintenance and closely approximating desired nipple biomechanical properties.