Earthworms enhance the bioremediation of tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate-contaminated soil by releasing degrading microbes

The escalating awareness of the environmental risks posed by organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), e.g., tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP), necessitates the development of effective approaches to mitigate their adverse ecological effects. However, research on the remediation of OPFR-contaminated soil remains limited. In this study, a strategy is proposed to enhance the microbial remediation of TBOEP-contaminated soil through the introduction of exotic earthworms (Eisenia fetida). The presence of earthworms led to a substantial increase in the 28-d removal rates of TBOEP at concentrations of 0.05, 0.5, and 5 mg/kg, with improvements of 32.3 ± 2.0%, 33.2 ± 1.3%, and 33.0 ± 5.6% compared to rates in the absence of earthworms, respectively. The underlying mechanisms for this enhancement include the earthworm-mediated enrichment of TBOEP-degrading bacteria, particularly Rhodococcus, Flavobacterium, and Pseudomonas, and the transfer of Rhodococcus from the earthworm gut to the soil, resulting in an increased relative abundance within the soil. Concurrently, the earthworms stimulated soil peroxidase activity, facilitating the oxidative degradation of TBOEP. Furthermore, the rise in dissolved organic matter content following earthworm treatment fostered the growth of degrading bacteria in the soil. Rhodococcus emerged as a dominant contributor to soil TBOEP removal, consuming humic-like compounds in dissolved organic matter. This investigation underscores the significance of gut microbes and offers valuable insights for the application of earthworm-based remediation strategies in OPFR-contaminated soil.