Millet Beer Brewing in North China: Exploring Traditional Methods and their Significance in Archaeological Research

ABSTRACTChina's alcohol production tradition dates back 9000 years to the early Neolithic era, with multiple types of alcohol recorded in ancient texts. However, these records lack sufficient detail about production processes for different alcohol types. Experimental archaeology, especially when informed by ethnographic observations, offers valuable insights into traditional brewing methods. Here, we present an ethnographic study of huangjiu (yellow beer) production by a local farming family in Henan province, North China, using wheat qu (a moldy grain starter) and foxtail millet. We conducted experimental brewing following the traditional method and analyzed the qu starter and fermented materials microscopically. This approach improved our understanding of morphological changes in starch and fungal elements during fermentation, serving as a comparative reference for studying ancient alcohol remains in archaeological contexts.KEYWORDS: Ethnographic studyexperimental brewingmillet beerwheat qu starterRhizopus fungusyeastXichuan HenanChinese yellow beer AcknowledgementsGratitude is extended to the individuals and institutions listed below for their generous support and invaluable assistance in making this project possible. Mr. Guoqiang Liu and Ms. Aihua He performed qu making and millet beer brewing in Xichuan, while allowing the authors to record the events. Yahui He cultured the qu samples. Dr. Thomas Bartlett edited the manuscript. Three anonymous reviewers provided thoughtful and constructive comments. The fieldwork and research of this project were supported by Henan University in China and the Min Kwaan Chinese Archaeology Fund of the Stanford Archaeology Center, Stanford University in the USA.Disclosure StatementNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.Additional informationNotes on contributorsLi LiuLi Liu is Sir Robert Ho Tung Professor in Chinese Archaeology at Stanford University. She has nearly 30 years of experience in fieldwork, teaching, and research. Her research interests encompass various topics, such as Chinese Neolithic archaeology, settlement archaeology, urbanism, early state formation, and the archaeology of foodways. She has actively employed scientific methods, such as usewear analysis and residue analysis, for conducting functional analyses of stone tools and pottery vessels. Her major publications include four books and over 150 research articles in both English and Chinese on these subjects.Zhongwei LiuZhongwei Liu is an Associate Professor at Henan University with nearly 15 years of experience in archaeological excavations, teaching, and research. Throughout his career, he has excavated more than ten sites, spanning from the Neolithic to the dynastic periods. His expertise lies in field archaeology, where he applies the principles of settlement archaeology and employs various archaeological methods. His primary research areas revolve around Han and Tang archaeology, while he also maintains a notable interest in Xia and Shang archaeology. He has published nearly 20 excavation reports and research articles on these subjects.