Confusion and complex learning during interactions with computer learning environments

Folk wisdom holds that being confused is detrimental to learning. However, research on emotions and learning suggest a somewhat more complex relationship between confusion and learning outcomes. In fact, it has been proposed that impasses that trigger states of cognitive disequilibrium and confusion can create opportunities for deep learning of conceptually difficult content. This paper discusses four computer learning environments that either naturally or artificially induce confusion in learners in order to create learning opportunities. First, an Intelligent Tutoring System called AutoTutor that engenders confusion through challenging problems and vague hints is described. The remaining three environments were specifically designed to induce confusion through a number of different interventions. These interventions include device breakdowns, contradictory information, and false feedback. The success and limitations of confusion induction and the impact of confusion resolution on learning are discussed. Potential methods to help learners productively manage their confusion instead of being hopelessly confused are also discussed.