Migratory behaviour of Ipswich Sparrows during spring

Optimal migration theory predicts birds will follow migration strategies that minimize time, energy, or predation risk, and these strategies employ specific and conflicting behaviours. Many behaviours driving songbird strategies are relatively well known, however gaps remain, especially for spring migration. Here, we describe the behaviours of a short-distance migrant, the Ipswich Sparrow ( Passerculus sandwichensis princeps Maynard, 1872), during spring migration. We determined the start and end dates of migration, migratory duration, travel speed, distance per night, and stopover location and duration. We also examined whether behaviours differed by sex and age. Sparrows migrated between March and June, and took an average of 29.1 days at a speed of 7.2 ± 9.4 m/s (SD) to fly ∼1574 km to their breeding grounds. Sparrows flew approximately 100 km/night and made stopovers of >7 days adjacent to ecological barriers. Males migrated before females, and behaviour did not differ with age. Overall, Ipswich Sparrows had a relatively slow travel speed and covered short distances each night consistent with efforts to minimize energy costs or predation risk. They had prolonged stopovers suggesting that they were also trying to minimize time. More work is required to determine which strategy sparrows may be using during spring migration.