Recent advances and applications of municipal solid wastes bottom and fly ashes: Insights into sustainable management and conservation of resources

Waste destruction through incineration has widely become an acceptable and popular choice globally. Despite being regarded as a sustainable option, if not operated and managed properly, it can be one of the least environmentally preferred options. It is agreed that the waste from municipal solid waste (MSW) can be considered a renewable energy resource due to its potential of being converted from "waste" into useful products and energy. This review for the first time incorporates both municipal solid waste bottom ash (MSW-BA) and municipal solid waste fly ash (MSW-FA); and discusses their physicochemical characterizations, leaching mechanisms, and pre-treatment methods. Additionally, it incorporates, discusses, and critically reviews the recent advances and applications of MSW-BA and MSW-FA, and explore the potential of utilizing ashes as a sustainable option by conserving natural resources.