Does the microbiota regulate immune responses outside the gut?

Perturbations in the gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota composition that occur as a result of antibiotics and diet in 'westernized' countries are strongly associated with allergies and asthma ('hygiene hypothesis'). The microbiota ('microflora') plays a crucial role in the development of mucosal tolerance, including the airways. Significant attention has been focused on the role of the microbiota in GI development, immune adaptation and initiation of GI inflammatory diseases. This review covers the post-developmental functions that the microbiota plays in regulating immunological tolerance to allergen exposure outside the GI tract and proposes the question: is the microbiota a major regulator of the immune system? Perturbations in the gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota composition that occur as a result of antibiotics and diet in 'westernized' countries are strongly associated with allergies and asthma ('hygiene hypothesis'). The microbiota ('microflora') plays a crucial role in the development of mucosal tolerance, including the airways. Significant attention has been focused on the role of the microbiota in GI development, immune adaptation and initiation of GI inflammatory diseases. This review covers the post-developmental functions that the microbiota plays in regulating immunological tolerance to allergen exposure outside the GI tract and proposes the question: is the microbiota a major regulator of the immune system?